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Language families. Languages ​​and scripts of East Asia Isolated languages ​​of East Asia

The department was founded in 1987 under the leadership of senior researcher, candidate of philological sciences Yuri Yakovlevich Plam.

In 1994, an outstanding Russian scientist, a prominent specialist in general and oriental linguistics, grammar and typology, corresponding member of the Department became the head of the Department. RAS Vadim Mikhalovich Solntsev, researcher of the Chinese and Vietnamese languages, as well as a number of other languages ​​of Southeast Asia, the materials of which were used by him in the development of general linguistic theories and the theory of isolating languages. As director of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, head of the Department of Languages ​​of East and Southeast Asia, V.M. Solntsev (1928–2000) opened new directions of scientific research, expanded the area of ​​scientific interests of the Department, including research on the languages ​​of China and Southeast Asia.

  • Solntsev Vadim Mikhailovich // Berezin F.M. (Editor-in-chief). Domestic linguists of the XX century. Part 2. - Sat. articles. - M., INION, 2003 .-- S. 198-217.
  • Vadim Mikhailovich Solntsev. Materials for the biobibliography of scientists. - A series of literature and language. Issue 25. - Comp. E.V. Barinov and others. Ed. entry Art. V.Yu. Mikhalchenko - M., 1999.
  • V.M. Solntsev // Miliband S.D. Orientalists of Russia. Biobibliographic reference book. Book 2. - M .: Izd. firm "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2008. - S. 387-389.
  • Kubryakova E.S., Stepanov Yu.S., Arutyunova N.D. Vadim Mikhailovich Solntsev - linguist // General and Eastern Linguistics. - Sat. scientific works, dedicated. 70th anniversary of Corresponding Member RAS V. M. Solntsev. - M .: Contemporary writer, 1999 .-- S. 3-19.
  • Corresponding member RAS V. M. Solntsev is 70 years old // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences. T. 68.1998, No. 9. - Pp. 861-862.

In 2000-2007. The duties of the head of the department were performed by Doctor of Philology Nina Vasilievna Solntseva.

In 2007-2012. the department was headed by senior researcher, candidate of philological sciences Irina Nigmatovna Komarova.

Since 2013, the department has been headed by the Director of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, corresponding member. RAS.

The following participants took part in the work of the Department staff (the years of work in the Department are indicated in brackets):

  • Plam Yuri Yakovlevich (1987–1994), senior scientist, Ph.D., head of the East and Southeast Asian languages ​​group, deputy head of the Russian part of the Russian-Vietnamese linguistic expedition.
  • Sitnikova Antonina Nikolaevna (1987–1998), senior scientist, Ph.D., author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary (MERS).
  • Alyoshina Idalia Evseevna (1996-2001), senior researcher, Ph.D., author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • Letyagin Dmitry Vikentievich (1994-2008), senior researcher, candidate of historical sciences, author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • Samarina Irina Vladimirovna (1987-2002), researcher, specialist in the languages ​​of the minority peoples of Vietnam.
  • Barinova Elena Vladimirovna (1990-2005), research assistant, scientific secretary.
  • Elena Alvianovna Sherkova (2000-2012), programmer.
  • Bandasak Saad (Laos) (1990–1999), researcher, author of the Russian-Lao dictionary.
  • Bandasak Sengtyan (Laos) (1990–1999), research assistant, author of the Russian-Lao dictionary.
  • Nguyen Tuet Minh (SRV) (1987-2006), senior scientist, doctor of philosophical sciences, author and executive editor of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • Nguyen Van Thak (SRV) (1987–2010), senior scientist, Ph.D., author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • Chan Van Ko (SRV) (1994-2002), senior researcher, Ph.D., author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • By Lok (SRV) (1993–2000), researcher, author of the Large Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary.
  • Nguyen Van Tai (SRV) (1994-1999), senior researcher, Ph.D., worked in the Vietnamese group of the Russian-Vietnamese linguistic expedition.
  • Chkhorn Prolyng (Cambodia) (1997-2006), researcher, doctor of legal sciences, author of the Russian-Khmer dictionary.
  • Sahak Chandara (Cambodia) (1996-2006), junior researcher, author of the Russian-Khmer dictionary.

For a number of years in cooperation with the department have worked: Lev Nikolaevich MOREV, Chief Researcher, Doctor of Philology; Vladimir Vladimirovich IVANOV, Senior Researcher; Anatoly Alekseevich SOKOLOV, senior researcher, candidate of philological sciences; Anatoly Sergeevich PRONIN, senior researcher, candidate of technical sciences; Tatyana Ivanovna RUMYANTSEVA, researcher; Irina Anatolyevna Letyagina, Junior Research Fellow; Tamara Alekseevna GOPPA, Junior Researcher; Dang Thi Hong Han (SRV), editor of MERS; Nguyen Thanh Lam (SRV), editor of MERS; Nguyen Thi Mai Hong (SRV), Junior Research Fellow; Truong Quang Zao (SRV); Duong Quang Bik (SRV); Svetlana Evgenievna GLAZUNOVA, junior researcher, specialist in the Vietnamese language; Nikolay Nikolaevich VOROPAEV, researcher, candidate of philological sciences, specialist in the Chinese language and Chinese linguistics.

The main directions of the Department's work

  1. Studies of Japanese, Chinese, Tibetan and Southeast Asian languages, including Vietnamese.
  2. Creation of bilingual dictionaries.

Information about the research staff of the department is presented in the reference book:

S. D. Miliband. “Orientalists of Russia. Biobibliographic Dictionary ". In 2 books. Moscow: Ed. Firm "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2008.

Alphabetically:

  • Aleshina I.E. - book 1, p. 36-37.
  • V. M. ALPATOV - book 1, p. 45-46.
  • K. V. ANTONYAN - book 1, p. 61-62.
  • E. V. Barinova - book 1, p. 105-106.
  • A. A. BELETSKAYA - book 1, p. 125-126.
  • N. N. Voropaev - book 1, p. 275.
  • Ivanov V.V. - book 1, p. 542.
  • I. N. Komarova - book 1, p. 667-668.
  • L. N. MOREV - book 1, p. 945.
  • PLAM Yu.Ya. - book 2, p. 155-156.
  • A. N. SITNIKOVA - book 2, p. 358.
  • A. A. Sokolov - book 2, p. 382.
  • V. M. Solntsev - book 2, p. 387-389.
  • N. V. Solntseva - book 2, p. 389-390.

Publications

Scientific monographs

  • Antonyan K.V. Morphology of effective constructions in the Chinese language.- M .: "Ant", 2003.
  • Voropaev N.N. Chinese-language precedent. - LAP: LAMBERT Academic Publishing, AV Akademikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG Saarbrücken, 2013.
  • Komarova I.N. Tibetan writing. - M .: Publishing company "Eastern Literature", 1995.
  • Nguyen Tuet Minh. Aspects of functional morphology. Functional-semantic category of incentive in Russian and Vietnamese languages. - M., 1999 .-- 2nd ed .: Otv. ed. N.V. Solntseva. - M., 2000.
  • V.M. Solntsev Introduction to the theory of isolating languages: Due to the general characteristics of the human language. - M .: Ed. firm "Eastern Literature", 1995. -.
  • Solntsev V.M. Vietnamese language. - M., 1999.

Dictionaries and reference books

  • New Comprehensive Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary in two volumes (About 80,000 words and expressions). - Resp. ed. V.A. Andreeva and Nguyen Tuet Minh. T. I (A-K) 1276 p., T. II (L-Z) 1270 p. - M., Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2012.
  • Alyoshina I.E. et al. Vietnam: Pocket Encyclopedia. - M .: Publishing House "Ant-Guide", 2001.
  • The Comprehensive Vietnamese-Russian Dictionary, I volume. - Resp. ed. N.V. Solntseva, V.A. Andreeva, V.V. Ivanov, Vu Lok, Nguyen Van Thak, Nguyen Tuet Minh. - M., Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2006.
  • Vadim Mikhailovich Solntsev. - Comp. E.V. Barinov and other Materials for the biobibliography of scientists. - A series of literature and language. Issue 25 .-- M., 1999.
  • Voropaev N.N. China: names for all time. Precedent characters. Linguoculturological dictionary-reference for students of the Chinese language, culture, history, literature of China. - M .: OOO "VKN Publishing House", 2015.
  • Vietnamese-Russian dictionary. - Comp. Chan Wang Ko. M., 2001.
  • Musical educational dictionary. OK. 1000 words. - Mosk. state conservatory named after PI Tchaikovsky, Institute of Linguistics Ros. acad. Sciences - Comp. T.V. Taktashova, N.V. Basko, E.V. Barinova. - M .: Publishing house "Flint-Science", 2003.
  • Russian-Vietnamese Dictionary of Musical Terms. 1500 words. - Comp. E.V. Barinova, Nguyen Van Thak. - M., 2008.
  • Russian-Lao dictionary. 24000 words. - Resp. ed. L.N. Morev (authors L.N. Morev, Yu.Ya. Plam, Saad Bandasak, Sengtyan Bandasak, etc.). - M .: Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2004.
  • Modern Russian-Chinese dictionary / N.N. Voropaev, Ma Tianyu, Deng Tse, S.M. Ivanov. - M .: Vostochnaya kniga, 2012 .-- 384 p.

Conference materials

  • Topical issues of Chinese linguistics. Materials of the IV, V All-Union conference. - Resp. ed. V.M. Solntsev. - M., 1988, 1990.
  • Topical issues of Chinese linguistics. Materials of the VI, VII All-Russian conference. - Resp. ed. V.M. Solntsev. - M., 1992, 1994/1995.
  • Chinese linguistics. Materials of the VIII, IX International conference. - Resp. ed. V.M.Solntsev. - M., 1996, 1998.
  • Chinese linguistics. Isolating languages: Materials of the X, XI, XII International conference. - Resp. ed. V.M.Solntsev (2000), N.V. Solntseva (2002), I.N.Komarova (2004). - M., 2000, 2002, 2004.

Expedition materials

  • Materials of the Russian-Vietnamese linguistic expedition. Issue 4. Hand language. - Resp. ed. N.V. Solntseva, Nguyen Van Loi; the authors of the linguistic essay V.M. Solntsev, N.V. Solntseva, I.V. Samarina. -M., 2001.

Tutorials

  • Alyoshina I.E., Chan Wang Ko. Russian-Vietnamese phrasebook. M., 2000.
  • Beletskaya A.A. Russian-Vietnamese phrasebook on foreign economic relations. - M .: All-Union Academy of Foreign Trade of the Ministry of Trade of the USSR, 1991. - 177 p.
  • Spring feeling. Chinese stories (parallel texts in Chinese and Russian) / comp. N.N. Voropaev. - LLC PO Sedial. - Tomsk, 2000 .-- 474 p.
  • Voropaev N.N. In Chinese about everything. 88 popular science texts-miniatures in the classroom on the Chinese language / N. N. Voropaev, Ma Tianyu. - M .: Vostochnaya kniga, 2013 .-- 272 p.
  • Voropaev N.N. 500 Chinese words. The simplest self-instruction manual of the Chinese language / Avt.-comp. N.N. Voropaev, Ma Tianyu. - Moscow: AST, 2013 .-- 219 p.
  • Voropaev N.N. Textbook of practical phonetics of the Chinese language / Ma Tianyu, N.N. Voropaev. - M .: Vostochnaya kniga, 2013 .-- 208 p. -
  • Voropaev N.N. Chinese. Three books in one. Grammar, phrasebook, dictionary / comp. N.N. Voropaev, Ma Tianyu. - Moscow: AST, 2013 .-- 317, p. - (Pocket tutorial).
  • Voropaev N.N. Chinese in one month. Self-instructional book of the spoken language. Initial level / status N.N. Voropaev, Ma Tianyu. - Moscow: AST, 2014 .-- 190 p. - (Language in one month).
  • Tyumeneva E.I., Glazunova S.E. Vietnamese language. Socio-political translation. Tutorial. - M .: MGIMO-University, 2014 .-- 472 p.

Current projects

In the works of Corresponding Member. RAS investigates the issues of grammar and pragmatics of the Japanese language, the language culture of Japan in its various aspects, such as the use of language in various spheres of life, peculiarities of views on the language, the linguistic picture of the world. The issues of standardization of the Japanese language are also being studied. The methods of maintaining and improving the language norms adopted in Japan are of great interest for organizing such activities in Russia. In the works of V.M. ALPATOV, the problems of the connection between language and society, language and culture in Japan are also investigated.

Scientific works are devoted to the study of the grammar of the Chinese language in the typological aspect, in particular, the processes of grammaticalization in the Chinese language, taking place on the basis of desemantization of the second components of complex words. The object of the research is the system of verbal modifiers in the Chinese language and the formation on its basis of a number of verb categories, such as aspect, orientation category and the category of the possibility / impossibility of achieving the result by action. Similar processes are typical for a number of languages ​​of East and Southeast Asia. K.V. Antonyan also studies the cognitive mechanisms of grammaticalization - metaphor and metonymy. The phenomenon of grammaticalization of verbal modifiers in the Chinese language is compared with similar phenomena in the Germanic languages ​​typologically and genetically unrelated to the Chinese language.

IN KOMAROVA's scientific research covers theoretical issues of phonetics, phonology and grammar of the Tibetan language. The author comes to the conclusion that the grammatical system of the Tibetan language has typological characteristics inherent in agglutinative-analytical and inflectional-synthetic languages, and the grammatical structure of the Tibetan language has an ergative character with a clear tendency to nominative. Currently, IN Komarova is working on the project "Dialectal system of the Tibetan language: phonetic and phonological features", dedicated to the study of the interaction and mutual influence of dialects of the Tibetan language, in particular, the Lhasa dialect and the Amdo dialect. This study aims to clarify and supplement the existing dialect classifications of the Tibetan-speaking area, which requires the development of new research methods and techniques. The theoretical and practical significance of the work lies in the further development of the theory and methodology of dialectological research in Tibetology, the compilation of the Tibetan dialectological atlas.

VIETNAM-RUSSIAN PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY WITH CULTURAL DESCRIPTION (ANDREEVA V.A., BELETSKAYA A.A., GLAZUNOVA S.E.) the Vietnamese language, to identify the national and cultural connotations of key words and concepts of culture contained in phraseological units. Work is underway to form the vocabulary of the dictionary in the amount of about 4,000 entries, the principles of the lexicographic description of phraseological units are being developed in accordance with the various zones of the vocabulary entry: semantic, grammatical, illustrative and culturological.

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Typology of languages ​​of the southern part of East Asia

The southern part of East Asia is inhabited by peoples whose languages ​​are a much more difficult object of comparative historical research than the languages ​​of its northern part. These difficulties are caused by their very remarkable typological features.

All languages ​​of the specified area have a pronounced sylogomorphic structure, that is, their morphemes or minimal significant units are usually equal in size to a syllable. In turn, these syllables are characterized by a very rigid structure. In some cases, it is quite complex, that is, it contains combinations of consonants at the beginning and at the end of a syllable, in others it is quite simple and then consists of syllables such as CV or CVC.

In most of these languages, syllables are pronounced under a special musical tone, the register of which depends on the properties of the initial consonant: syllables with voiceless initial consonants are realized in high register, syllables with voiced initial consonants - in low. For a long time it was believed that the tones of Thai languages ​​are realized in three registers - high, medium, low, but recent studies indicate that in these languages, in reality, only two registers really differ - high and low [Li Fangui, 1962, 31 –36]. Thus, the mentioned rule has no exceptions.

In all languages ​​of the southern part of East Asia, the relations between words in a sentence are expressed using word order and service morphemes, which for the most part retain their significant functions. The languages ​​of the southern part of East Asia, possessing such important general structural characteristics, are considered in modern linguistics as representatives of the language type, which SE Yakhontov suggests to call “Sinitic” [Yakhontov, 19716, 268].

The word order rules in the languages ​​of the southern part of East Asia were used in the first typological classification of the languages ​​of this area, proposed by T. Delyakupri. The basis for his classification of languages ​​was the place of definition in relation to the defined and the place of the addition in relation to the verb. As a result, all East Asian languages ​​were divided into two main types: northern, where the definition comes before the definable, and the object before the verb, and southern, where the definition comes after the definable, and the object after the verb. The principles proposed by T. Delyakupri had a significant impact on the subsequent classifications of the languages ​​of the southern part of East Asia.

V. Schmidt's classification of languages, which is considered genealogical, is in fact based on many typological criteria, among which the order of words in a sentence occupies a prominent place. V. Schmidt singled out the Sino-Tibetan languages ​​in the area of ​​East Asia, to which he also ranked the Yenisei, considering them the extreme northern languages ​​of this group, Thai, Austro-Asian and Austronesian. The languages ​​of the latter group are spread primarily on the islands of the South Seas, and only a small part of them is found in the southeast of the Asian continent.

In addition to the synchronous typological classifications discussed above, there is also one diachronic one, proposed by S. Ye. Yakhontov in 1971. The essence of this classification is as follows. SE Yakhontov proceeds from the fact that the development of all isolating syllabic languages ​​of East Asia is going in the same direction. Depending on how far the processes of evolution of the grammatical structure have gone in individual languages, the languages ​​of this area can be divided into three evolutionary types: archaic, middle and late [Yakhontov, 1971, 269]. He considers Khmer, classical Tibetan, ancient Chinese of the 1st millennium BC to be examples of archaic languages. NS. Examples of intermediate languages ​​are Thai, Vietnamese, Yao. Examples of late languages ​​are modern Chinese, Miao, Yizu, Burmese [ibid., 269–275].

In the 60s, S. Ye. Yakhontov conducted a lexico-statistical study of the languages ​​of the south of East Asia. The lexico-statistical method was created to estimate the time of separation of related languages ​​based on the number of common words in the list of M. Swadesh, named after the creator of this method, which contains the main, usually non-borrowed words of the language. There are two main word lists - a large one of two hundred and a small one of one hundred words. The lists are used depending on the amount of available linguistic material and on the accuracy of the estimation of the time of separation of languages ​​that interests the researcher. Despite the fact that the lexicostatistical method was proposed for the study of obviously related languages, it is actually used to assess the amount of common vocabulary in languages ​​whose relationship has not been proven.

A lexico-statistical study of the main languages ​​of the south of East Asia leads to the assertion of the existence of the following groups of languages ​​with stable lexical connections within the list of M. Swadesh: Sino-Tibetan, Thai, Austro-Asian, Austronesian.

According to S. Ye. Yakhontov, the group of Sino-Tibetan languages ​​is divided into two branches: Tibeto-Burmese and Chinese. He considers the Yizu languages ​​to be the center of the grouping of the Tibeto-Burmese languages, around which all the others are grouped: Burmese, Naxi, Tangut, which are further apart from each other than the Yizu languages ​​[Yakhontov, 1964, 3]. The Chinese language is an independent group of Sino-Tibetan languages ​​and, in turn, is divided into a significant number of dialects that are very distant from each other, which, just like related languages, can be the subject of lexico-statistical analysis [ibid, 5] ...

According to estimates of S. E. Yakhontov, already in the IV millennium BC. NS. Sino-Tibetan languages ​​were spoken from Nepal and Assam in the south to the upper reaches of the Yellow River in the north. The isolation of the Chinese language dates back to the same time. Such an early isolation of the Chinese language is the reason for the relatively weak lexical ties with other languages ​​of the Chinese-Tibetan family [ibid, 6].

Thai languages ​​form a compact group with obvious genetic links. A lexico-statistical study of the Siamese language of Thailand, the Yunnan Thai languages ​​and the Nung language showed their close relationship. According to estimates by S. Ye. Yakhontov, the beginning of the disintegration of the common Chinese language dates back to the 4th – 6th centuries. [ibid, 7]. It is widely believed that Thai languages ​​are genetically related to Chinese. The lexico-statistical analysis of the materials of the Chinese and Thai languages ​​does not support this view. There is a significant amount of common vocabulary in both languages, however, the overlaps are negligible within the Swadesh list. From this, S. Ye. Yakhontov concludes that the common vocabulary in these languages ​​is the result of more or less late borrowings. A study of the vocabulary of the Thai language Li in Hainan, which only relatively recently came into contact with the Chinese language, shows that it contains almost no words of Chinese origin [ibid, 86].

The Austro-Asian language group includes the Monkhmer, Munda, Vietnamese, and Miao-Yao languages. At the same time, the Vietnamese language reveals a significant, and the Miao-Yao languages ​​- somewhat less lexical similarity with the Monkhmer languages. By themselves, the Miao and Yao languages ​​represent a fairly compact group with obvious genetic links [ibid, 10].

A lexico-statistical study of a wider range of languages ​​in the southern part of East Asia with the involvement of Indonesian also indicates the existence of very ancient lexical connections between the Monkhmer, Thai, and Indonesian languages. These groups make up the branches of the Austro-Asiatic, or, as SE Yakhontov calls it, the Austrian, family of languages ​​[ibid., 9].

Thus, the lexico-statistical analysis of the languages ​​of the south of East Asia leads to the conclusion that all the languages ​​of this area and part of the island world adjacent to it belong to two main groups of languages: Sino-Tibetan and Austro-Asian. The division of each of these language groups began a long time ago. All currently existing linguistic groups of this area are the result of the division and mutual contacts of these main groups (Map 2).

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From the book The Ancient Chinese: Problems of Ethnogenesis the author Kryukov Mikhail Vasilievich

The typology of the order of significant elements in the languages ​​of East Asia The lapidary style and the standard content of most of the oracular bone inscriptions also predetermined the limited set of grammatical means with which they were written. This set

Many languages ​​of the Old World began nostratic linguistic community, dating from researchers around the 11th – 9th millennia BC. and localized by them in North-East Africa and South-West Asia. From its composition, the languages ​​of five families emerged, spreading over a large territory of the Old World: Indo-European, Altai, Ural-Yukaghir, Kartvelian and Dravidian.

Indo-European the family occupies a special place among them, since its languages ​​are not only spread over the vast territory of the Old World, but predominate in the number of speakers in the American and Australian-Oceanic regions. It includes the following groups, subgroups and languages.

Slavic the group, in turn, is subdivided into subgroups: East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Rusyn and Belarusian languages; West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak and two Lusatian languages ​​(Lusatians are the Slavic people of the north-eastern part of Germany) languages; South Slavic - Serbo-Croatian (native to Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins and Bosnians), Slovene, Macedonian and Bulgarian.

Germanic a group in which, as in Slavic, it is possible to distinguish "one-national" languages, i.e. those that are native to one ethnic group, and "multinational" that "serve" several peoples. The first are: Swedish, Norwegian, Frisian (Frisians are an ethnic group living in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany), Faroese (Faroese are the people of the Faroe Islands), Icelandic languages, to the second: German, which is native to the Germans, Austrians, Liechtenstein, German-Swiss, Alsatians, the original variants of the German language are Luxembourgish and Yiddish - the native language for a significant part of Ashkenazi Jews; English - for the British, most of the Scots and Irish, part of the Gibraltars, Anglo-Canadians, Anglo-Australians, Anglo-Zealanders, Anglo-African, US Americans and a number of peoples of the West Indies - Grenadians, Jamaicans, Barbados, Trinidadians, Guyanese; Dutch - for Dutch, Flemish, Surinamese and Afrikaners (Boers) of South Africa; Danish - for the Danes and part of the Norwegians.

Romanesque the group that arose on the basis of the so-called Vulgar Latin, which now belongs to "dead" languages, includes languages ​​that are native to one ethnic group - Romanian, Catalan, Galician, Romansh, Sardinian, Occitan, Corsican, and for several ethnic groups: italian - for Italians, Sanmarians, Italo-Swiss; French - for the French, Monegasques / Monacans, Franco-Swiss, Walloons, French Canadians, in the West Indies - Guadalupeans, Martinics, Guyans and Haitians; Portuguese - for the Portuguese and Brazilians; Spanish - for the Spaniards, part of the Gibraltars, and in Latin America for the majority of ethnic groups - Mexicans, Peruvians, Chileans, Argentines, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, etc. (with the exception of the Brazilians and some peoples of the West Indies). The Spanish language holds the record for the number of ethnic groups speaking it.

Celtic the group, which was once widespread in Europe, is now represented only by Irish, Breton (an ethnos in France), Gaelic (part of the Scots) and Welsh (Welsh) languages.

Albanian group - Albanian.

Greek group - Greek, spoken by the Greeks themselves, Greek Cypriots, and the so-called Karakachan Greeks of mountainous Greece.

Baltic group - Lithuanian, Latvian languages.

Armenian group - Armenian.

Iranian group - Afghan / Pashtun, Persian / Farsi, Dari / Farsi-Kabuli, Kurdish, Tajik, etc., from the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia - Ossetian and Tat.

Indo-Aryan the group includes the languages ​​of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent - Hindustan, Bengali, Bihar, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Assamese, Nepali, Sinhalese, etc. In the Russian Federation, this group is represented by the Gypsy language.

Nuristan group - Nuristan language.

Altai the language family is represented by three groups - Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, including the Korean branch.

Turkic group - Turkish (Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Greek-Urum), Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Karakalpak, Uzbek, Uyghur, Gagauz, etc. In the Russian Federation in the European part - Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash languages. In the North Caucasus - Karachay-Balkar, Nogai and Kumyk. In Siberia - Altai, Khakass, Tuvinian, Yakut, Dolgan, Shor, Tofalar languages.

Mongolian group - Mongolian, in the Russian Federation: Buryat - in Siberia and Kalmyk - in the European part.

Tungus-Manchu group - Manchzhur, in the Russian Federation - Nanai, Evenk, Even, Ulch, Udege, Oroch, Orok (Uilta), Negidal languages.

Ural-Yukaghir the family consists of three groups of languages ​​- Finno-Ugric, Samoyed and Yukaghir.

Finno-Ugric group includes languages finnish subgroups - Finnish, Estonian, Livonian (people in Latvia). In the Russian Federation - Udmurt, Komi and Komi-Permian, Sami, Vepsian, Izhorian, as well as the languages ​​of bilingual ethnic groups: Moksha and Erzyan - native to the Mordovians, Mountain Mari and meadow-eastern - for the Mari, Livvik and Ludik - for the Karelians; and ugric subgroups - Hungarian, and in the Russian Federation - Khanty and Mansi languages.

Samoyed the group consists of the Nenets, Enets, Selkup and Nganasan languages.

Yukagirskaya the group is represented by only one language - Yukaghir.

North Caucasian the family consists of the Nakho-Dagestan and Abkhaz-Adyg groups.

Naho-Dagestan the group includes nakh a subgroup consisting of Chechen and Ingush languages, and Dagestan a subgroup, which, according to the calculations of linguists, consists of about fifty languages ​​- Avar, Lezghin, Dargin, Lak, Tabasaran, etc.

Part Abkhaz-Adyghe groups include Abkhazian a subgroup including the Abkhaz and Abaza languages, and Adyghe a subgroup consisting of the Adyghe and Kabardino-Circassian languages.

All of the above families include, inter alia, the languages ​​of peoples whose ethnic territory is part of the Russian Federation. In addition, there are peoples who speak Chukchi-Kamchatka languages ​​that do not go back to the Nostratic community - Chukchi, Koryak and Itelmen, Eskimo-Aleutian - Eskimo and Aleutian.

The peoples who speak the languages ​​of other families live mainly outside its borders.

Sino-Tibetan the family is one of the largest in the world in terms of the number of speakers of its languages, primarily due to the largest people in the world - the Chinese, whose number is 1.3 billion people. She

is divided into the Chinese, Central and Western Himalayan group. Chinese the group is represented by the Chinese language, in which there are quite a few mutually understandable dialects, except for the Chinese, Hui (Dungan) speak this language. IN central the group includes the languages ​​of Burmese, Tibetan, Yizu, etc., in Western Himalayan - canauri and lahuli.

Languages Dravidian families are common in the south of the Indian subcontinent. It consists of several groups, among which the most significant in terms of the number of speakers of these languages ​​are: southern with the languages ​​Tamil, Malayal, Kannara, etc .; southeast with Telugu language. In addition, the Dravidian family includes gondwanese and other groups.

Kartvelskaya the family includes the Georgian language, which, in addition to Georgians, is also spoken by the Adjarians, and the closely related Megrelian, Chan and Svan languages.

Austroasian the family is distributed in Southeast and partly in East and South Asia. It includes groups: v'et-muongskaya, in which the most significant in terms of the number of speakers is the Vietnamese language; southeastern (Mon-Khmer) with Khmer, Khasi and other languages, as well as groups munda, miao-yao, northern (palaung wa ) and Malaccan.

Austronesian the family is distributed mainly on the islands of Southeast Asia and a large part of Oceania. By the number of speakers, the most numerous of its groups is western autronesian with the languages ​​of Javanese, Bisaya, Sunda and others on the territory of Southeast Asia and the languages ​​of the Chamorro and Belau / Palau peoples in Oceania on the islands of Micronesia. Languages in the stock Austronesian (Oceanian) groups are distributed mainly in Oceania: in Melanesia - among the peoples of the Tolai, Keapara, etc .; in Micronesia - among the Tungaru, Truk and other peoples; in Polynesia - among the Maori, Samoa and some others. In addition, this family includes Central Austronesian and taiwanese groups.

Languages paratay families are distributed mainly in the mainland Southeast, as well as in the south of East Asia, the most representative in its composition thai a group with Siamese, Lao, Zhuang and a number of other languages, this family also includes the languages ​​of the groups kam-sui, whether and galao.

In Australia and Oceania, researchers, in addition to the languages ​​of the Austronesian family, also distinguish australian and Papuan languages. They are rather poorly studied: Australian - due to the disappearance of a significant part of the aborigines, Papuan - due to the inaccessibility of the interior of New Guinea. It has been established that these languages ​​represent a significant number of language families. So in the composition of the Australian languages, and there are about two hundred of them, united in the phylum, such communities are distinguished (corresponding approximately to families like pama-nyunga, tivi, deraga etc.), in Papuan languages ​​of which there are more than a thousand - trans-New Guinean, West-Papuan and a number of other families.

Afrasian (Semitic-Hamitic ) the family is distributed in North Africa and Southwest Asia. It consists of semitic group, which includes the Arabic language, however, from the point of view of modern linguistics, divided into several dozen already independent languages ​​(including literary) - Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, Iraqi, etc. Also this group includes: Hebrew - language Jewish ethnos; Maltese - the inhabitants of the European state of Malta and Assyrian - the language of the Aysors, the descendants of the population of Ancient Assyria, currently scattered across many countries, their largest numbers are noted in Iraq and Turkey. Other languages ​​of this group are common in northeastern Africa (Amharic, tiger, etc.).

The languages ​​of the other groups of the Afrasian family are spoken only by the peoples of the African continent: kushite (Oromo, Somalia, Badja, etc.); berber (Tuaregs, Zenaga, etc.) and Chadian (hausa, borax, bade, etc.).

Niger-Kordofan the family, whose peoples live mainly in Western Sudan and Western Tropical Africa, consists of two groups. Group n gamer-congo includes a number of subgroups - benue congo, qua, west atlantic and others, according to the number of speakers, the languages ​​of such peoples as Fulbe, Yoruba, Igbo, Rwanda are distinguished. It should be especially noted that the languages ​​of this group are spoken by the pygmies of Central Africa, some features of their culture indicate that in ancient times they spoke other, "own" languages. Kordofan the group is small both in the number of languages ​​and in the number of speakers of them, these are the peoples of the Koalib, Tumtum, etc.

Nilo-Saharan the family is distributed mainly in the eastern part of Africa. Most of its languages ​​belong to Shari-nile a group consisting of a number of subgroups - East Sudanese, Central Sudanese and others, other groups of this family - Saharan, Songhai, Fur, Maba and Coma. The most common Nilo-Saharan languages ​​belong to the peoples of Luo, Dinka, Kanuri, and others.

Koisan the family is widespread in southern Africa and, in terms of the number of speakers, is mainly represented South African Khoisan group - Hottentot and Bushman languages, its other groups - sandave and hadza / hadzapi include one people each with similar names.

On the American continent, the vast majority of the population now speaks the languages ​​of the Indo-European family, spread here as a result of the colonization of the region in the post-Columbian period.

As for the aboriginal population, the already mentioned Eskimo-Aleutian languages ​​in the northern part of the continent and indian - in the rest. The classification of Indian languages ​​is a complex problem, and so far there has not been created one that would be accepted, if not by all, then by the majority of researchers. Now the most generally accepted is the following classification by J. Greenberg, which distinguishes nine families in the Indian languages.

Ando-equatorial family (according to many researchers it must be divided into Andean and equatorial families) includes the languages ​​of such peoples as Quechua, Paraguayans, Aymara, Araucan, etc. In the languages ​​of the family penuti say (Maya, kakchikeli, kekchi, tsimshiap, etc.), Aztec-Tanoan (Aztecs, Shoshone, Hopi, Zunya, etc.), macrooto-manga (zapotecs, mishtecs, pame, etc.), macro chibcha (chibcha-muiski, lenka, kuna, etc.), same-pano-caribbean (same, pano, caribbean, toba, etc.), hoka-siu (Sioux, Cherokee, Iroquois, Dakota, etc.), Algonquian-Mossan (Algonquins, Cree, Ojibwe, etc.), na-dene (Navajo, Athabascans, Apaches, Tlingits, etc.), tarasca - tarascans.

Isolated languages

Languages ​​that have no resemblance to any other languages ​​are represented almost exclusively on the Asian continent. Ainsky the language belongs to the Ainu Islands of Hokkaido (Japan), there are about 20 thousand people, although only a few hundred representatives of this people speak it. Japanese the language is also among the isolated, the number of Japanese is 126 million people. Nivkh the language of the Nivkhs of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin Island, numbering 4.5 thousand people. is a "splinter" of the so-called Paleo-Asian peoples who once lived here, displaced or assimilated by newcomers from the south. Ket the language belongs to the Kets of the Upper and Middle Yenisei, numbering about 1,000 people. In the highlands of North India on Burish the language is spoken by Burishki / Burushaski, there are about 50 thousand of them. The only non-Asian isolated language is Basque, belonging to the Basques of the north of the Iberian Peninsula, whose population is 1.2 million people. It is the only one of the peoples of Western Europe that has survived here after the resettlement of the Indo-Europeans. In addition, sometimes isolated languages ​​include Korean language, the number of Koreans is about 62 million people, but many researchers include one hundred in the Altai language family.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in hard-to-reach regions, in particular, in the Amazon basin, in West and Central Africa and in New Guinea, linguists have noted cases of the discovery of isolated languages, but their poor knowledge does not allow us to confidently confirm the validity of such conclusions.

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