Topic: XIX century

Topic: The development of science and geographical discoveries in the first half 19th century

Target: To trace the development of science in the first half of the 19th century, to tell about the main geographical discoveries of this period.

Tasks:

Educational:

· Show the importance of inventions in the field of science for the development of Russian industry;

Tell about the perseverance and courage of Russian travelers during expeditions

Developing:

enrich the vocabulary of students in the course of studying a new topic;

develop the ability to listen to the teacher and use the material received in the work; to promote the ability to analyze, through the performance of tasks on cards; continue to develop the ability of students to give complete answers to the questions posed; continue to form an orientation in historical time when working with the "Time Tape" manual.

Educational:

arouse a feeling of admiration among students by people who, in the most difficult conditions, made discoveries, devoted their lives to serving the Motherland, the Russian people.

Planned results:

By the end of the lesson, students should know:

Russian inventors of the first half of the 19th century;

Scientific discoveries: - telegraph; E. and M. Cherepanov - steam engine, the first railway;

Geographical discoveries: - South Sakhalin Island, - Antarctica.

Should be able to:

Orient yourself on the map;

Use what you have learned to complete assignments.

Basic knowledge: Scientific discoveries: - telegraph; E. and M. Cherepanov - steam engine, the first railway. Geographical discoveries:, - South Sakhalin Island, Antarctica.

Basic terms and concepts: telegraph, telephone, retinue, penguin.

Equipment and materials: multimedia presentation, task cards, Timeline, date cards.

During the classes

During travels, expeditions sometimes discover new, previously unknown geographical objects - mountain ranges, peaks, rivers, glaciers, islands, bays, straits, sea currents, deep depressions or elevations on the seabed, etc. These are geographical discoveries.

In ancient times and the Middle Ages, geographical discoveries were usually made by the peoples of the most economically developed countries. Such countries included Ancient Egypt, Phoenicia, later - Portugal, Spain, Holland, England, France. In the XVII-XIX centuries. many major geographical discoveries were made by Russian explorers in Siberia and the Far East, navigators in the Pacific Ocean, in the Arctic and Antarctic.

Discoveries of particular importance were made in the 15th-18th centuries, when feudalism was replaced by a new social formation - capitalism. At this time, America was discovered, the sea route around Africa to India and Indochina, Australia, the strait separating Asia and the North. America (Bering), many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the northern coast of Siberia, sea currents in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was the era of the great geographical discoveries.

Geographical discoveries have always been made under the influence of economic factors, in pursuit of unknown lands, new markets. In these centuries, powerful maritime capitalist powers were formed, enriched by seizing discovered lands, enslaving and plundering the local population. The era of the great geographical discoveries in the economic sense is called the era of the primitive accumulation of capital.

The actual course of geographical discoveries in its most important stages developed in the following sequence.

In the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia), many discoveries were made in ancient times by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks (for example, during the military campaigns of Alexander the Great in Central Asia and India). On the basis of the information accumulated then, the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy in the II century. compiled a map of the world that covered the entire Old World, though far from accurate.

A significant contribution to the geographical discoveries on the east coast of Africa and in South and Central Asia was made by Arab travelers and merchants of the 8th-14th centuries.

In search of sea routes to India in the 15th century. Portuguese navigators bypassed Africa from the south, opening the entire western and southern coast of the mainland.

Having embarked on a voyage in search of a route to India across the Atlantic Ocean, the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 reached the Bahamas, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, initiating the discoveries of the Spanish conquerors.

In 1519–1522 the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan and El Cano for the first time bypassed the Earth from east to west, opened the Pacific Ocean for Europeans (it was known to the local inhabitants of Indo-China and South America from ancient times).

Great discoveries in the Arctic were made by Russian and foreign sailors in the 15th-17th centuries. The British explored the coast of Greenland from 1576 to 1631 and discovered Baffin Island. Russian sailors in the XVI century. already hunted a sea animal near Novaya Zemlya, at the beginning of the 17th century. passed along the northern coast of Siberia, discovered the Yamal, Taimyr, Chukotsky peninsulas. S. Dezhnev in 1648 passed through the Bering Strait from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.

in the southern hemisphere in the seventeenth century. the Dutchman A. Tasman discovered the island of Tasmania, and in the 18th century. Englishman J. Cook - New Zealand and the east coast of Australia. Cook's travels laid the foundation for knowledge about the distribution of water and land on Earth, completing the discovery of the Pacific Ocean.

In the XVIII century. and the beginning of the 19th century. expeditions have already been organized for special scientific purposes.

By the beginning of the XIX century. only the Arctic and Antarctic remained unexplored. The largest of the expeditions in the XVIII century. was supplied by the Russian government. These are the First (1725–1728) and Second (1733–1743) Kamchatka expeditions, when the northern tip of Asia was discovered - Cape Chelyuskin and many other objects in the North. In this expedition, V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov discovered Northwestern America and the Aleutian Islands. Many islands in the Pacific Ocean were discovered by Russian round-the-world expeditions, starting from swimming in 1803-1807. I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky. The last continent, Antarctica, was discovered in 1820 by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev.

In the 19th century "white spots" disappeared from the interior of the continents, especially Asia. The expeditions of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and especially Ya. M. Przhevalsky for the first time studied in detail vast regions of Central Asia and northern Tibet, almost unknown until that time.

D. Livingston and R. Stanley traveled in Africa.

The Arctic and Antarctic remained unexplored. At the end of the XIX century. new islands and archipelagos were discovered in the Arctic, and separate sections of the coast in Antarctica. The American R. Piri reached the North Pole in 1909, and the Norwegian R. Amundsen reached the South Pole in 1911. In the XX century. The most significant territorial discoveries have been made in Antarctica, and maps of its overglacial and underglacial relief have been created.

The study of Antarctica with the help of aircraft in 1928–1930. conducted by the American J. Wilkins, then the Englishman L. Ellsworth. In 1928–1930 and in subsequent years, an American expedition led by R. Byrd worked in the Antarctic.

Large Soviet complex expeditions began to study Antarctica in connection with the holding in 1957-1959. International Geophysical Year. At the same time, a special Soviet scientific station was established - "Mirny", the first inland station at an altitude of 2700 m - "Pionerskaya", then - "Vostok", "Komsomolskaya" and others.

The scale of the work of the expeditions was expanding. The structure and nature of the ice cover, the temperature regime, the structure and composition of the atmosphere, and the movement of air masses were studied. But the most important discoveries were made by Soviet scientists while surveying the coastline of the mainland. The bizarre outlines of more than 200 previously unknown islands, bays, capes and mountain ranges appeared on the map.

In our time, significant territorial discoveries on land are impossible. The search is in the oceans. In recent years, research has been carried out so intensively, and even with the use of the latest technology, that much has already been discovered and mapped, which are published in the form of an atlas of the World Ocean and individual oceans.

Now there are few "white spots" left at the bottom of the oceans, huge deep-water plains and trenches, vast mountain systems are open.

Does all this mean that geographical discoveries are impossible in our time, that “everything is already open”? Far from it. And they are still possible in many areas, especially the World Ocean, in the polar regions, in the highlands. But in our time, the very meaning of the concept of “geographical discovery” has changed in many ways. Geographical science now sets itself the task of identifying the interrelations in nature and economy, establishing geographical laws and regularities (see Geography).

What important geographical discoveries were made in the 18th and 19th centuries

The expedition of F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev discovered Antarctica in 1820. In the 19th century The disappearance of vast “white spots” from the world geographical map within the interior regions of Asia (P. P. Semyonov Tyan Shansky, N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, etc.), Africa (D. Livingston, G. Stanley and others), North America (M. Lewis, D. Thompson, J. Fremont, L. A. Zagoskin and many others). South America (A. Humboldt, R. Schomburgk and others) and Australia (C. Sturt and others). In the Euro-Asian Arctic, as a result of the voyages of industrialists and scientific expeditions (P.K. Pakhtusov, A.E. archipelagos. A number of territorial discoveries in the 19th century. in the American Arctic is associated with the search for the Northwest Passage (J. Ross, W. Parry, J. Franklin, R. McClure, and others). Discoveries in Antarctica concerned mainly separate parts of the coast of Antarctica.

1. Using the card "The most important geographical discoveries and explorations", answer the questions.

What islands did the Normans reach in the 10th and 11th centuries?

Iceland, Greenland, British Isles, North American Islands.

Through what three seas did A. Nikitin's route pass?

Caspian, Arabic, Black.

In what direction did he cross North America?

6. Scientific expeditions and geographical discoveries of Russian travelers in the 18th century

Mackenzie?

From the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.

What cities in Asia did M. Polo's route pass through?

Cilicia, Mosul, Tabriz, Kerman, Ormuz.

Indicate the name of the southernmost geographical feature reached by J. Cook.

Australia.

In what city did the first Russian circumnavigation of the world begin and end?

Kronstadt.

Who first reached the North Pole?

Robert Perry.

Which travelers are associated with the discovery of the South Pole?

Roald Amundsen, Robert Scott.

What geographical objects are named after travelers?

Tasman Sea, Barents Sea, Bering Strait, Laptev Sea, Bellingshausen Bay.

2. Mark on the contour map the route of F. Magellan's round-the-world travel. Answer the questions and complete the text.

What strait was discovered as a result of this round-the-world trip?

Magellan.

Label it on the outline map.

What islands does this strait separate from the mainland of South America?

Fire Earth.

What ocean F. Magellan gave the name? Why did he call it that?

Pacific Ocean. During the journey, the weather remained good and the ocean seemed calm to the traveler.

As a result of the expedition of F. Magellan, the presence of an ocean between Asia and America and the unity of the World Ocean were established; confirmed the sphericity of the earth.

3. Using the map of the atlas, fill in the table.

MOST IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

4. Find on the map in the atlas and put on the contour map:

1) travel routes of a scientist who explored Central and South America for many years and who was nicknamed “the second Columbus” for this;

2) D. Livingston's travel routes in Africa. Sign the geographical feature named after him.

Russian travelers. Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this put forward new tasks for domestic geographers. AT 1803-1806 has been undertaken the first Russian round-the-world expedition from Kronstadt to Alaska on the ships Nadezhda and Neva. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770 - 1846). He commanded the ship "Hope". The ship "Neva" was commanded by Captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773 - 1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the studied places were drawn up. Lisyansky, having traveled independently from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich material on the peoples of Oceania and North America.

Map. The first Russian round-the-world expedition

The attention of researchers around the world has long attracted the mysterious area around the South Pole. It was assumed that there is a vast southern mainland (the name "Antarctica" was not in use then). English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the XVIII century. crossed the Antarctic Circle, encountered impenetrable ice and declared that navigation further south was impossible. They believed him, and for 45 years no one undertook south polar expeditions.

In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops under the leadership of Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778 - 1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of the "Peace" was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788 - 1851). Bellingshausen participated in the voyage of Krusenstern. Lazarev subsequently became famous as a military admiral, who brought up a whole galaxy of Russian naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).

"Vostok" and "Mirny" were not adapted to polar conditions and differed greatly in seaworthiness. Mirny was stronger, and Vostok was faster. Only thanks to the great skill of the captains, the sloops never lost each other in stormy weather and poor visibility. Several times the ships were on the verge of destruction.

But still Russian expedition managed to break through to the South much further than Cook. January 16, 1820 "Vostok" and "Mirny" came very close to the Antarctic coast (in the area of ​​the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf). In front of them, as far as they could see, stretched a gently rolling icy desert. Perhaps they guessed that this was the southern continent, and not solid ice. But there was no other way to obtain evidence than by landing on the shore and making a journey far into the depths of the desert. The sailors did not have such an opportunity. Therefore, Bellingshausen, a very conscientious and accurate person, reported in a report that a "mainland of ice" was visible. Subsequently, geographers wrote that Bellingshausen "saw the mainland, but did not recognize it as such." And yet this date is considered the day of the discovery of Antarctica. After that, the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to their homeland, having made a full voyage around the open continent.

Kostin V. "Vostok and Mirny off the coast of Antarctica", 1820

In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovnin's notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society to the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797 - 1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka, South America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played a big role in the development of geographical science.

Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky (1814-1876). Rejecting the court career that opened before him, he achieved the appointment of the commander of the Baikal military transport. He is on it in 1848-1849. sailed from Kronstadt around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He opened the mouth of the Amur, a strait between Sakhalin and the mainland, proving that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.

Amur expedition of Nevelsky

Expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant countries, local residents often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, Russian people collected information about other countries and peoples.

Russian America

Russian America. Alaska was discovered in 1741 by the expedition of V. Bering and A. Chirikov. The first Russian settlements in the Aleutian Islands and Alaska appeared in the 18th century. In 1799, Siberian merchants engaged in crafts in Alaska united in the Russian-American Company, which was assigned a monopoly right to use the natural resources of this region. The company's board was first in Irkutsk, and then moved to St. Petersburg. The main source of income for the company was the fur trade. For many years (until 1818) the main ruler of Russian America was A. A. Baranov, a native of the merchants of the city of Kargopol, Olonets province.

Russian ships off the coast of Alaska

The Russian population of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands was small (in different years from 500 to 830 people). In total, about 10 thousand people lived in Russian America, mostly Aleuts, inhabitants of the islands and the coast of Alaska. They willingly approached the Russians, were baptized into the Orthodox faith, adopted various crafts and clothing. The men wore jackets and frock coats, the women in cotton dresses. The girls tied their hair with a ribbon and dreamed of marrying a Russian.

Another thing is the Indians who lived in the hinterland of Alaska. They were hostile to the Russians, believing that it was they who brought into their country previously unknown diseases - smallpox and measles. In 1802, Indians from the Tlingit tribe (“Kolosh”, as the Russians called them) attacked the Russian-Aleutian settlement on about. The Sitha burned everything and killed many of the inhabitants. Only in 1804

Geographical discoveries of the 18th and 19th centuries. What are their meaning and consequences?

the island was reclaimed. Baranov founded the Novo-Arkhangelsk fortress on it, which became the capital of Russian America. A church, a shipping yard, and workshops were built in Novo-Arkhangelsk. The library has collected more than 1200 books.

After the resignation of Baranov, the post of chief ruler began to be occupied by naval officers, inexperienced in commercial affairs. Gradually depleted fur wealth. The financial affairs of the company were shaken, she began to receive state benefits. But geographic research expanded. Especially - in the deep regions, which were indicated on the maps with a white spot.

Of particular importance was the expedition of L. A. Zagoskin in 1842-1844. Lavrenty Zagoskin, a native of Penza, was the nephew of the famous writer M. Zagoskin. He outlined his impressions of the difficult and lengthy expedition in the book A Pedestrian Inventory of Part of the Russian Possessions in America. Zagoskin described the basins of the main rivers of Alaska (Yukon and Kuskokwim), collected information about the climate of these areas, their natural world, the life of the local population, with whom he managed to establish friendly relations. Written lively and talentedly, the "Pedestrian inventory" combined scientific value and artistic merit.

I. E. Veniaminov spent about a quarter of a century in Russian America. Arriving in Novo-Arkhangelsk as a young missionary, he immediately took up the study of the Aleut language, and later wrote a textbook on its grammar. On about. Unalaska, where he lived for a long time, a church was built by his labors and care, a school and a hospital were opened. He regularly conducted meteorological and other natural observations. When Veniaminov became a monk, he was named Innocent. Soon he became the bishop of Kamchatka, the Kurils and the Aleuts.

In the 50s of the XIX century. The Russian government began to pay special attention to the study of the Amur region and the Ussuri region. Interest in Russian America has noticeably declined. During the Crimean War, she miraculously survived the capture by the British. In fact, the distant colony was and remained undefended. For the state treasury, devastated as a result of the war, the annual considerable payments of the Russian-American Company became a burden. I had to make a choice between the development of the Far East (Amur and Primorye) and Russian America. The issue was discussed for a long time, and in the end an agreement was concluded with the US government on the sale of Alaska for 7.2 million dollars. On October 6, 1867, the Russian flag was lowered in Novo-Arkhangelsk and the American flag was raised. Russia peacefully withdrew from Alaska, leaving the future generations of its inhabitants with the results of their work on its study and development.

Document: From the diary of F. F. Bellingshausen

January 10 (1821). ... At noon, the wind moved to the east and became fresher. Unable to go south of the solid ice we encountered, we had to continue our journey in anticipation of a favorable wind. Meanwhile, the sea swallows gave us reason to conclude that there was a coast in the vicinity of this place.

At 3 o'clock in the afternoon they saw a blackening spot. I knew at a glance through the pipe that I was seeing the shore. The rays of the sun, emerging from the clouds, illuminated this place, and, to the general pleasure, everyone was convinced that they saw a coast covered with snow: only scree and rocks, on which the snow could not hold, turned black.

It is impossible to express in words the joy that appeared on the faces of everyone at the exclamation: “Shore! Coast!" This delight was not surprising after a long-term uniform navigation in incessant fatal dangers, between ice, in snow, rain, slush and fog ... The shore we found gave us hope that there must certainly be other shores, because the existence of only one in such a vast expanse of water seemed to us impossible.

11 January. From midnight the sky was covered with thick clouds, the air was filled with darkness, the wind was fresh. We continued on the same course to the north, in order to turn and lie closer to the shore. In the course of the morning, after clearing the cloudiness that hovered over the coast, when the sun's rays illuminated it, we saw a high island, stretching from N0 61 ° to S, covered with snow. At 5 o'clock in the afternoon, having approached a distance of 14 miles from the coast, we met solid ice, which prevented us from getting closer, to better survey the coast and take something of curiosity and preservation worthy to the museum of the Admiralty Department. Having reached the very ice with the Vostok sloop, I led to the other tack to drift in order to wait for the Mirny sloop, which was behind us. As the Mirny approached, we raised our flags: Lieutenant Lazarev congratulated me via telegraph on finding the island; on both sloops they put people on the shrouds and shouted three times a mutual “hurray”. At this time it is ordered to give the sailors a glass of punch. I called Lieutenant Lazarev to me, he informed me that he saw all the ends of the coast clearly and well determined the position of them. The island was quite clearly visible, especially the lower parts, which are made up of steep stone cliffs.

I called this island the high name of the culprit of the existence of the military fleet in Russia - the island of Peter I.

§Golden Age of Russian Culture I
§Golden Age of Russian Culture II
§Russian Orthodox Church of the 19th century
§Metropolitan Philaret
§Persecution of the Old Believers

In 1725, the 1st Kamchatka Expedition set off from St. Petersburg. The Russian emperor Peter I appointed Vitus Bering (1681-1741) as its head, instructing him to build ships, go north on these ships and look for where Asia met America. Bering was a native of Denmark, who had been in the Russian naval service for 20 years. As a result of his research, the first accurate maps of the sea and were created.

In 1741, during the second expedition on the ships "St. Peter" and "St. Paul" under the command of captain-commanders Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov (1703-1748), the coasts of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands were explored, their nature and population were described.

This voyage marked the beginning of Russian research in. The great merit of A. Chirikov is that he summarized the material collected during the expeditions and compiled exceptionally valuable maps. For the first time in the history of cartography, the northwestern coast of North America and the Aleutian Islands are plotted on them. On the world map you will also find Chirikov Island.

It consisted of five separate detachments that surveyed the northern coast of Asia from 1733 to 1743. Among the participants of one of them were the outstanding Russian pioneers Semyon Chelyuskin (1700-1764), Khariton (1700-1763) and Dmitry (1701-1767) Laptev, Vasily Prdnchishchev (1702-1736). As a result, the rivers flowing into (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Yana, Indigirka) were explored, and the northernmost point of the mainland, Cape Chelyuskin, was discovered.

The members of the expedition collected and presented material, invaluable for geography, about the tides of the sea, about the nature of the northern region, about the life and way of life of the local population.

Since that time, new geographical names have appeared on the map: the sea, the Dmitry Laptev Strait, Cape Laptev, the coast of Khariton Laptev, Cape Chelyuskin. The eastern coast of the Taimyr Peninsula is named after Vasily Pronchishchev. On the same coast there is a bay that bears the name of Maria Pronchishcheva, the first Russian polar explorer, the wife of a brave explorer.

The first Russian round-the-world trip lasted three years (1803-1806). The expedition circled the globe on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the command of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky.

Discovery of Antarctica

The round-the-world Antarctic voyage of Thaddeus Bellingshausen (1778-1852) and Mikhail Lazarev (1788-1851) on the ships Vostok and Mirny in 1819-1821 is a great feat, and their discovery on January 28, 1820 of a new continent - Antarctica - is the most important event.

Since ancient times, the area around the South Pole has been designated by cartographers as dry land. Sailors who were attracted by "Terra australis incognita" (unknown southern land), making sea trips in search of it, and the chain of islands, but remained a "blank spot".

The famous English navigator (1728-1779) in 1772-1775 several times crossed the boundary of the Antarctic Circle, discovered islands in the Antarctic waters, but never found the southern polar continent.

“I went around the ocean of the Southern Hemisphere,” Cook wrote in his report, at high latitudes and did it in such a way that he undeniably rejected the possibility of the existence of the mainland ... “However, it was he who said that, judging by the great cold, the huge number of ice islands and floating ice , land in the south should be.

The members of the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev conducted meteorological observations of winds, precipitation, and thunderstorms. Based on these data, Bellingshausen drew a conclusion about the features of the Antarctic climate. The cartographic material of the researchers was distinguished by its accuracy. This was later confirmed by many travelers.

New geographical names appeared on the world map: the Bellingshausen Sea, Peter I Island, Lazarev Island, the Mirny polar station and others.