The relationship between sensation and perception. Sensation and perception Individual specifics of the development of sensation and perception

31.07.2023

Perception in general psychology is called the reflection of objects, situations or events in their integrity. It arises from the direct impact of objects on the senses. Since an integral object usually acts simultaneously on various senses, perception is a complex process. It includes in its structure a number of sensations - simple forms of reflection into which the composite process of perception can be decomposed.

Feelings in psychology, processes of reflection of only individual properties of objects of the surrounding world are called. The concept of sensation differs from the concept of perception not qualitatively, but quantitatively. For example, when a person holds a flower in his hands, admires it and enjoys its fragrance, then the holistic impression of the flower will be called perception. And separate sensations will be the aroma of a flower, the visual impression of it, the tactile impression of the hand holding the stem. However, at the same time, if a person with closed eyes inhales the fragrance of a flower without touching it, it will still be called perception. Thus, perception consists of one or more sensations that create the most complete idea of the object at the moment.

Modern psychology recognizes that sensations are the primary form of human cognition of the surrounding world. It should also be noted that although sensation is an elementary process, many complex mental processes are built on the basis of sensations, starting with perception and ending with thinking.

So, perception is a collection of sensations. For the emergence of sensations, an object of external influence and analyzers capable of perceiving this influence are necessary.

The concept of an analyzer(an apparatus that performs the function of distinguishing external stimuli) was introduced by Academician I.P. Pavlov. He also studied the structure of the analyzers and came to the conclusion that they consist of three parts.

The first, peripheral part is the receptors. These are nerve endings located in our sense organs, directly perceiving external stimuli.

The second part is the conductive paths along which excitation is transmitted from the periphery to the center.

The third part is the central part of the analyzer. These are areas of the brain responsible for recognizing the appropriate stimulus (visual, gustatory, olfactory, etc.). It is here that the impact of the stimulus is transformed into a mental process, which in psychology is called sensation.

So, the classification of sensations is built on the basis of a list of receptors, with the help of which these sensations become available.

Analyzers distinguish between two types of receptors: exteroreceptors that analyze signals coming from the outside world, and interoreceptors that analyze internal information such as hunger, thirst, pain, etc.

Exteroreceptors are the basis of perception, since they provide an objective view of the outside world.

As you know, a person has five senses. There are one more types of external sensations, since motor skills do not have a separate sense organ, but they also cause sensations. Therefore, a person can experience six types of external sensations: visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile (tactile), gustatory and kinesthetic sensations.

The main source of information about the outside world is the visual analyzer. With its help, a person receives up to 80% of the total amount of information. The organ of visual sensations is the eye. At the level of sensations, he perceives information about light and color. Colors perceived by a person are divided into chromatic and achromatic. The first include the colors that make up the spectrum of the rainbow (i.e., the splitting of light - the well-known "Every hunter wants to know where the pheasant is sitting"). To the second - black, white and gray colors. Color shades containing about 150 smooth transitions from one to another are perceived by the eye depending on the parameters of the light wave.

The next in importance in obtaining information is the auditory analyzer. Sensations of sounds are usually divided into musical and noise. Their difference lies in the fact that musical sounds are created by periodic rhythmic vibrations of sound waves, and noises are created by non-rhythmic and irregular vibrations.

Many people have an interesting feature - the combination of sound and visual sensations into one general sensation. In psychology, this phenomenon is called synesthesia. These are stable associations that arise between the objects of auditory perception, such as melodies, and color sensations. Often people can tell "what color" a given melody or word is.

Slightly less common is synesthesia, based on the association of color and smell. It is often inherent in people with a developed sense of smell. Such people can be found among tasters of perfumery products - not only a developed olfactory analyzer is important for them, but also synesthetic associations that allow the complex language of smells to be translated into a more universal language of color. In general, the olfactory analyzer, unfortunately, most often people are not very well developed. People like the hero of Patrick Suskind's novel The Perfumer are a rare and unique phenomenon.

Of great importance in people's lives is the development of the kinesthetic (motor) analyzer. Kinesthetic sensations, as mentioned above, do not have a special sense organ. They are caused by irritation of nerve endings in muscles, joints, ligaments, bones. These irritations occur when the body moves in space, during physical exertion, when performing movements associated with fine motor skills (drawing, writing, embroidery, etc.). A developed kinesthetic analyzer is important, of course, for all people. But it is especially necessary for those whose profession or hobby is connected with the performance of complex movements, when it is very important not to make a mistake. These are ballet dancers, figure skaters, climbers, circus performers and many more people in whose lives there is movement as the main factor in life.

This is followed by skin sensations, sometimes they are divided into two types: tactile (tactile) and temperature. Sometimes collectively they are called tactile. For general erudition, consider the first option. Tactile sensations allow us to distinguish the relief and surface structure of objects with which our skin comes into contact, temperature sensations allow us to feel heat or cold. This analyzer performs a compensatory function for visually impaired or blind people, as well as auditory. In addition, the tactile analyzer is the only way to communicate for deaf-blind-mute people. A learning system and language have long been developed that allow such people to fully develop their consciousness and communicate with others. This language is created on the basis of touching the skin. Every touch has its own meaning. It is roughly similar to the language of hieroglyphs.

It would seem that the taste analyzer, given to us by evolution, is useless for survival and it is not known why. This is a kind of luxury against the background of other vital sensations (moreover, the taste analyzer is much more developed in people than the olfactory one). But nature is wiser than us, we can only state, but not always analyze its quirks and unexpected generosity. So, the organs of taste sensations are the tongue and the soft part of the palate. There are zones of recognition of sweet, bitter, sour, salty. Well, a full flavor bouquet is made up of these simple sensations in the brain.

Psychophysics called a branch of psychology that studies the quantitative relationship between the strength of the stimulus and the magnitude of the sensation that occurs. This section was founded by the German psychologist Gustav Fechner. It includes two groups of problems: measuring the threshold of sensations and building psychophysical scales. The threshold of sensations is the magnitude of the stimulus that causes sensations or changes their quantitative characteristics. The minimum amount of stimulus that causes sensation is called the absolute lower threshold. The maximum value, the excess of which causes the disappearance of sensation, is called the absolute upper threshold. As an explanation, we can cite auditory stimuli that are beyond the threshold zone: infrasounds (frequency below 16 Hz) are below the threshold of sensitivity and are not yet audible, ultrasounds (frequency more than 20 kHz) go beyond the upper threshold and are no longer audible.

Adaptation of the sense organs to the stimuli acting on them is called adaptation. An increase in sensitivity with a weak action of the stimulus is called positive adaptation. Accordingly, negative adaptation is a decrease in sensitivity under the action of strong stimuli. The easiest way is visual adaptation (for example, when moving from light to dark and vice versa). It is much more difficult for a person to adapt to auditory and pain stimuli.

The magnitude of the stimulus that causes the minimum analyzable change in sensation is called differential. The dependence of the strength of sensation on the magnitude of the stimulus is described in the Weber-Fechner law. According to this law, the dependence is logarithmic. But this is not the only psychophysical view of the quantitative ratio of stimulus and sensation.

On the basis of sensations and perception in general, images are formed. In psychology, the concept of an image is ambiguous and is interpreted both in a broader and in a narrower framework. In the context of ideas about sensations and perception, an image can be defined as a product of the functioning of the human brain, which makes up a subjective picture of a particular object of the surrounding world based on objective sensations. In other words, sensation is an objective reaction of the organism, which is the basic element of reflection. Perception is not a mechanical sum of sensations, but their totality, where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. After all, we perceive the object as a whole, without dissecting it into individual properties. The image is even more complex and subjective. It includes not only a holistic view of the object, but also all kinds of characteristics that depend on the individual experience of each person. For example, snakes cause disgust or fear in someone, and someone keeps a serpentarium at home. Or, seeing a fern bush in the forest, one person imagines how well this specimen will fit into his herbarium, another thinks about arranging the bouquet, the third thinks about the mystical property of this plant one night a year to indicate the location of the treasure.

The ability to create images determines the fact that the process of perception underlies the formation of the basic mental functions of a person: thinking, memory, attention, emotional sphere. It should be noted here that in perception there are both innate and acquired qualities. Innate are the properties of analyzers given to man by nature. However, these properties can change over the course of life, both for better and for worse. For example, kinesthetics can develop if a person leads an active lifestyle, or lose their accuracy if a person moves little or leads an unhealthy lifestyle. Vision, hearing, smell can change their sharpness depending on the life situation. So, in a person who has lost his sight, feelings are aggravated that compensate for this loss. Accordingly, the perception as a whole and, as a result, the images of objects change.

The process of perception is closely related to the process learning- acquisition of individual experience. There is a two-way relationship between these two processes. The child begins to experience life through perception. In an adult, experience affects the perception and formation of images.

Perception is divided into different types. They may depend on the predominance of one or another type of analyzers included in the reflective process. For example, when listening to a piece of music, auditory perception predominates. Similarly, other types of perception may predominate, which are based on any one of the sensations.

In addition, there are more complex types of perception based on several sensations. For example, when watching a movie, visual and auditory analyzers are involved.

In addition to classification based on the prevailing analyzers, there is also a classification according to the types of perceived objects themselves. This concerns the perception of space, time, movement, the perception of one person by another. Such types of perception are usually called social perception.

Under the perception of space understand the perception of the forms of objects, their spatial values and relationships in three dimensions. Distinguish the perception of space with the help of vision, touch and kinesthetic apparatus. Vision gives an idea of the shape, volume and size of objects. Touch forms the perception of the position and size of small objects with which a person can directly come into contact. The kinesthetic apparatus complements tactile and visual perception and makes it possible to perceive the spatial forms of relations and sizes of both small and large objects in three dimensions.

Next comes the perception of time. It reflects the duration and sequence of phenomena or events and depends on the speed of change of mental processes. Thus, the perception of time for each person is individual, since it depends on the subjective characteristics of the psyche.

The perception of movement is inseparable from spatio-temporal perception, since any movement, i.e., the movement of objects, occurs precisely in these dimensions.

It is customary to distinguish between the perception of movement relative and irrelative. The first includes the simultaneous perception of both a moving object and a certain fixed point, relative to which this object moves. The second is the perception of a moving object, isolated from the perception of other objects. For example, if a person watches the movement of a soccer ball or players across the field, this is a relative perception of movement, since his vision captures the fixed boundaries of the field. If a person sailing on the sea on a yacht watches the splash of waves or how the wind drives clouds across the sky, such a perception of movement will be irrelevant - there is no fixed point.

In addition, there are concepts such as objectivity and constancy perception. Objectivity means that a specific object is always perceived. Abstract ideas do not refer to the process of perception, but to the process of thinking or imagining. From the point of view of the modern theory of reflection, the objectivity of perception is revealed as an objective quality, due to the peculiarities of the impact of objects in the external world.

Constancy of perception means that the perceived object does not change its characteristics when it moves away from a person or approaches him, is drawn in a picture or shown on a screen. For example, the visual image of an elephant, due to the adequacy of consciousness, will be an image of a large animal, regardless of whether the elephant is in close proximity to a person, it is removed at some distance, or a person sees it on TV. (Of course, in this case we are talking about an adult who in his experience has a visual image of an elephant. A small child who does not have sufficient experience of perception, seeing an elephant and a mouse in pictures of the same size, will not form an adequate representation without additional information.) If not there is a violation of consciousness, then the visual (in this case) analyzer will correctly assess the perspective, the background on which the object is located, and the brain will give an adequate idea of it. With a disorder of perception, constancy may disappear. This happens, for example, with hallucinations. In addition, distorted perception may occur. This happens with the deliberate creation of illusions - a technique used by illusionists using mirrors, appropriate lighting and other things, or with spontaneously arising illusions, when in obscure lighting a stump can be mistaken for an animal, or in a drowsy state, thunder can be perceived as gun salvos. The emergence of spontaneous perception illusions depends on many factors: personal experience, cultural traditions, social environment, the prevailing natural landscape in the area where a person lives. For example, the illusions of Europeans and Africans or urban and rural residents will differ significantly due to the above factors.

At the end of the lecture, we will review the existing theories of perception. The emergence of the first views on the nature of perception dates back to ancient times. For example, Plato believed that all objects are the materialization of the ideas of the Creator. And the perception of objects and the appearance of their images are the memory of the immortal soul, which before its incarnation was also in the world of these ideas. The idealistic approach of the ancient thinker to the views on the psyche and the process of perception subsequently did not find development in psychological science.

In the process of the formation of psychology, the associationist approach to perception began to prevail. Associative psychology is one of the main trends in the psychology of the 17th–19th centuries. The main explanatory principle of mental life was the concept of association. This term was introduced by John Locke. It means a connection that occurs under certain conditions between two or more mental formations (sensations, motor acts, perceptions, ideas, etc.). Various interpretations of associative psychology have been given by David Hartley, George Berkeley and David Hume.

At the beginning of the XX century. in contrast to the mechanistic associative approach to the psyche and perception as its basic function, the Gestalt psychology school was formed. The concept of gestalt - a holistic image - formed the basis of the views of this school. But the concept of this school regarding the process of perception also turned out to be unviable, although it played a big role in overcoming the mechanistic nature of the associative approach. Gestalt psychology ascribes to perception the ability to transform the action of material stimuli in the external environment. Thus, according to the views of this school, consciousness is not an objective function of the psyche, based on an adequate reflection of the surrounding world. Perception is detached from the external world, perceived as a category of subjective idealism. It loses any objectivity whatsoever.

Another step in overcoming associationism was made by M. I. Sechenov. Thanks to him, in parallel with the development of the Gestalt concept, the reflex concept of the psyche developed, which is currently accepted as the basis by many foreign psychological schools. The reflex concept of reflection is a compromise between the mechanistic materialism of the associationists and the subjective idealism of the representatives of Gestalt psychology. According to her, perception is not a mechanical process, but also is not a process completely divorced from the objective realities of the world. Perception is a creative process in its own way. It combines the real properties of the perceived object and the individual characteristics of the perceiving subject. In his book “Reflexes of the Brain”, I. M. Sechenov provided a theoretical justification for the integrity of the relationship between the organism and the external environment. And in his work “Elements of Thought”, he wrote about the process of perception as follows: “An organism without its external environment that supports existence is impossible, therefore, the environment that influences it must also be included in the scientific definition of an organism.”

In the middle of the last century in Russian psychology was formulated activity approach to the study of the psyche. One of its main authors was Academician A. N. Leontiev. This approach is characterized by the fact that each mental phenomenon is considered in connection with human activity. The process of perception is inextricably linked with activity. At each stage of ontogenesis (individual development), a person has a leading type of activity. The process of perception is directly involved in the formation of any type of activity at each age stage. In addition, with the expansion of areas of activity, perception changes qualitatively. This mutual influence is similar to the mutual influence of perception and learning. Here it is necessary to separate two concepts. In psychology, there are two terms that are synonymous with the term "perception". They are taken from the Latin language and introduced into the terminological apparatus of psychology precisely in order to emphasize the difference between the two types of perception. These are the terms "perception" and "apperception". Perception is the direct perception of objects in the surrounding world. Apperception is a perception that depends on the past experience of a person, on the content of his mental activity and his individual characteristics. Distinguish stable apperception, depending on the formed personality traits, such as worldview, beliefs or beliefs, education, and temporary apperception, depending on the situational mental state.

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Lecture number 2. Sensation and perception

So, perception is a collection of sensations. For the emergence of sensations, an object of external influence and analyzers capable of perceiving this influence are necessary.

The first, peripheral part is the receptors. These are nerve endings located in our sense organs, directly perceiving external stimuli.

The second part is the conductive paths along which excitation is transmitted from the periphery to the center.

So, the classification of sensations is built on the basis of a list of receptors, with the help of which these sensations become available.

Exteroreceptors are the basis of perception, since they provide an objective view of the outside world.

In addition, there are more complex types of perception based on several sensations. For example, when watching a movie, visual and auditory analyzers are involved.

The perception of movement is inseparable from spatio-temporal perception, since any movement, i.e., the movement of objects, occurs precisely in these dimensions.

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Modern psychology recognizes that sensations are the primary form of human cognition of the surrounding world. . It should also be noted that although sensation is an elementary process, many complex mental processes are built on the basis of sensations, starting with perception and ending with thinking.

So, perception is a collection of sensations. For the emergence of sensations, an object of external influence and analyzers capable of perceiving this influence are necessary.

The physiological ability of sensation is the activity of analyzers

they are in three parts.

The first, peripheral part is the receptors. These are nerve endings located in our sense organs, directly perceiving external stimuli.

The second part is the conductive paths along which excitation is transmitted from the periphery to the center.

So, the classification of sensations is built on the basis of a list of receptors, with the help of which these sensations become available.

The next in importance in obtaining information is the auditory analyzer.

sense of smell

Of great importance in people's lives is the development of the kinesthetic (motor) analyzer.

taste analyzer

Perception is the result of the activity of the system of analyzers. The primary analysis that takes place in the receptors is supplemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the brain sections of the analyzers.

The physiological basis of perception is the conditioned reflex activity of the intra-analyzer and inter-analyzer complex of nerve connections that determine the integrity and objectivity of the reflected phenomena.

Perception differs by type depending on the predominant role of one or another analyzer in reflective activity. Each perception is determined by the activity of the perceptual system, i.e. not one, but several analyzers. Their meaning may be unequal: one of the analyzers is leading, others complement the perception of the subject.

Perception proposes the selection of the main and most significant features from the complex of inactive features, while simultaneously distracting from the non-essential. It requires combining the main essential features and comparing what is perceived with past experience.

Any perception includes a motor (motor) component (in the form of palpation of an object, eye movement, pronunciation, etc.). Therefore, the process of perception is considered as a perceptual activity.

Perceptual Properties

Objectivity is a property of perception, which is expressed in obtaining information from the outside world, to this world.

Structure - perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations.

Meaningfulness - a person's perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of an object.

Integrity - perception is always a holistic image.

Constancy - thanks to constancy, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively comparable in shape, color and size, etc.
Selectivity - is manifested in the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

The process of purposeful perception of an object consists of the following steps:

Search for an object;

Identification of its most characteristic features;

Object identification, i.e. assigning it to a certain category of things or phenomena.

Perception always affects the personality of the perceiver, his attitude to the perceived, the needs, interests, desires and feelings of a person.

Memory and thinking.

Thinking- the highest level of human knowledge of reality. Sensual basis of thinking are sensations, perceptions and representations.

Thinking is not only closely connected with sensations and perceptions, but it is formed on the basis of them. The transition from sensation to thought is a complex process, which consists primarily in isolating and isolating an object or its attribute, in abstracting from the concrete, individual and establishing the essential, common to many objects.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech mechanisms, especially speech-auditory and speech-motor.

Thinking is also inextricably linked with the practical activities of people. Any type of activity involves thinking, taking into account the conditions of action, planning, observation. By acting, a person solves any problems. Practical activity is the main condition for the emergence and development of thinking, as well as a criterion for the truth of thinking.

Thinking is a function of the brain, the result of its analytical and synthetic activity. It is provided by the operation of both signaling systems with the leading role of the second signaling system. When solving mental problems in the cerebral cortex, a process of transformation of systems of temporary neural connections takes place. Finding a new thought physiologically means closing the nerve connections in a new combination.

Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental separation of its aspects, actions, relations from the whole.

Synthesis is the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental.

Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activity of man. In labor activity, people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made.

The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be of different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence.

Abstraction is a process of mental abstraction from certain signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better understand it. A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Concretization is a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it. Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.

Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, therefore, is a selection in objects and phenomena

general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Memory.

Memory- one of mental functions and types of mental activity, designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store information about the events of the external world and the reactions of the body for a long time and repeatedly use it in the sphere of consciousness to organize subsequent activities.

Memory structure

Most psychologists recognize the existence of three levels of memory, differing in how long information can be stored on each of them. Accordingly, there are immediate or sensory, memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

sensory memory

As its name implies, sensory memory is a primitive process carried out at the level of receptors. Spelling showing what traces; only a very short time is stored in it - about ¼ second, and during this time the question is decided whether the reticular formation will attract the attention of the higher parts of the brain to the signals received. If this does not happen, then in less than a second the traces are erased and the sensory memory is filled with signals.

A special case of sensory memory is successive images. They occur when the retina is exposed to a strong or prolonged stimulus.

short term memory

In the event that the information transmitted by the receptors has attracted the attention of the brain, it can be stored for a short period of time, and during this time the brain processes and interprets it. At the same time, the question of whether this information is important enough to be transferred for long-term storage is decided.

Short-term memory is characterized not only by a certain duration information retention, but also capacity, those. the ability to simultaneously store a certain number of heterogeneous elements of information.

duration. It was found that short-term memory lasts for about 20 seconds, during which time very little information is stored - for example, some number or several syllables of three or four letters.

If the information is not re-entered or is not "scrolled" in memory, it disappears after this interval, leaving no noticeable traces.

long term memory

It is from those few elements that are briefly retained in short-term memory that the brain selects what will be stored in long-term memory. Short-term memory can be compared to the shelves in a large library: books are removed from them, then put back, depending on momentary needs. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is more like an archive: in it, certain elements selected from short-term memory are divided into many rubrics, and then stored for a more or less long time.

Capacity and Duration Long-term memory is basically limitless. They depend on the importance of the memorized information for the subject, as well as on the way it is coded, systematized and, finally, reproduced.

memorization - it is the process of capturing and then storing the perceived information. According to the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization: unintentional (or involuntary) And intentional (or arbitrary).

unintentional memorization is memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques and the manifestation of volitional efforts. This is a simple imprint of what has affected us and has retained some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. It is best to remember what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity.

Unlike involuntary memory arbitrary (or intentional) memorization is characterized by the fact that a person sets himself a specific goal

Individual features of memory

First, the individual features of memory are associated with personality traits. Even people with a good memory do not remember everything, and people with a bad memory do not forget everything. This is because memory is selective. What corresponds to the interests and needs of a person is remembered quickly and firmly. Secondly, individual differences are found in the qualities of memory. It is possible to characterize a person's memory depending on how developed his individual memory processes are. We say that a person has a good memory if he is different:

1) speed of memorization,

2) durability of preservation,

3) fidelity

4) the so-called readiness of memory.

But memory can be good in one respect and bad in another. Separate qualities of memory can be combined in different ways.

1. The best combination is fast memorization with slow forgetting.

2. Slow memorization is combined with slow forgetting.

3. Fast memorization is combined with fast forgetting.

4. The lowest productivity is characterized by memory, characterized by slow memorization and quick forgetting.

As a result of the occurrence of sensation, some sensation is generated, for example, brightness, sweetness or loudness. Perception forms a complete image in our head, which consists of puzzles of sensations. In order to learn to perceive information well, it is necessary to be able to recognize, synthesize and analyze the signs of a material object. Thus, the individual perceived details are combined into a whole, which serves as the source of our experience. Violation of sensations and perception lies in the threshold of sensitivity. It can be low or high in relation to the norm. Neuropathologists are engaged in the treatment of such phenomena.

Every living being is endowed with the ability to feel from birth. But only some animals and people have perception. The ability to perceive improves over time. This helps us better understand certain processes, so it is important to work on our development and improve our perception.

15. Presentation

Performance- the process of mental reconstruction of images of objects and phenomena that at the moment do not affect the human senses. The term "representation" has two meanings. One of them denotes the image of an object or phenomenon that was previously perceived by the analyzers, but at the moment does not affect the senses (“the name of the result of the process”, deverbative). The second meaning of this term describes the very process of reproduction of images (“the name of the process”, a substantiated infinitive).

Representations as mental phenomena have both similarities and differences with such mental phenomena as perception, pseudohallucinations and hallucinations.

The physiological basis of representations is formed by "traces" in the cerebral cortex of the brain, remaining after real excitations of the central nervous system during perception. These "traces" are preserved due to the known "plasticity" of the central nervous system.

There are various ways to classify views.

By leading analyzers (by modality)

In accordance with the division of representations into representative systems (according to the modality of the leading analyzer), the following types of representations are distinguished:

· visual(image of a person, place, landscape);

· auditory(playback of a musical melody);

· olfactory(representation of some characteristic smell - for example, cucumber or perfume);

· taste(ideas about the taste of food - sweet, bitter, etc.)

· tactile(the idea of smoothness, roughness, softness, hardness of the object);

· temperature(the notion of cold and heat).

Nevertheless, often several parsers are involved in the formation of representations at once. Thus, imagining a cucumber in the mind, a person simultaneously imagines its green color and pimply surface, its hardness, characteristic taste and smell. Representations are formed in the process of human activity, therefore, depending on the profession, one type of representation develops predominantly: for an artist - visual, for a composer - auditory, for an athlete and ballerina - motor, for a chemist - olfactory, etc.

By degree of generalization]

Representations also differ in the degree of generalization. In this case, one speaks of singular, general, and schematized representations (as opposed to perceptions, which are always singular).

· Single representations- these are representations based on the perception of one specific object or phenomenon. Often they are accompanied by emotions. These representations underlie such a phenomenon of memory as recognition.

· General representations- representations that generally reflect a number of similar objects. This type of representation is most often formed with the participation of the second signal system and verbal concepts.

· Schematized Views describe objects or phenomena in the form of conditional figures, graphic images, pictograms, etc. An example is diagrams or graphs that display economic or demographic processes.

Origin]

The third classification of representations is by origin. Within the framework of this typology, they are divided into representations that have arisen on the basis of sensations, perceptions.

Thinking and imagination.

· Based on perception. Most of a person's ideas are images that arise on the basis of perception - that is, the primary sensory reflection of reality. From these images, in the process of individual life, a picture of the world is gradually formed and corrected.

Every single person.

· Based on thinking. Representations formed on the basis of thinking are highly abstract and may have few concrete features. So most people have representations of such concepts as "justice" or "happiness", but it is difficult for them to fill these images with specific features. *

· Based on imagination. Representations can also be formed on the basis of imagination, and this type of representation forms the basis of creativity - both artistic and scientific.

According to the degree of volitional effort[

Representations also differ in the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts. In this case, they are divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

Involuntary ideas are ideas that arise spontaneously, without activating the will and memory of a person, for example - dreams.

Arbitrary ideas are ideas that arise in a person under the influence of will, in the interests of the goal set by him. These representations are controlled consciousness person and play an important role in his professional activity.

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1 . PsichologicalI am the nature of sensation and perception

Feeling- this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal states of the body with the direct impact of material stimuli on the corresponding receptors. "... Matter, acting on our senses, produces a sensation."

The sense organs receive, select, accumulate information and transmit it to the brain, which receives and processes its huge and inexhaustible flow every second. As a result, there is an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself. On this basis, nerve impulses are formed that come to the executive organs responsible for regulating body temperature, digestive organs, organs of movement, endocrine glands, for tuning the sense organs themselves, etc. and all this extremely complex work, consisting of many thousands of operations per second, is being done continuously.

“Otherwise, as through sensations, we cannot learn anything about any forms of matter and about any forms of movement ...”. If a person lost all senses, he would not know what is happening around him, he could not communicate with people around him, find food, and avoid dangers. The famous Russian doctor S.P. botney ( 1832-1889) described a rare case when the patient lost all kinds of sensitivity, except for vision in one eye and touch in a small area of \u200b\u200bthe arm. When the patient closed her eye, and no one touched her hand, she fell asleep.

A person needs to receive information about the world around him all the time.

The sensation arises as a result of the conversion of the specific energy of the stimulus that is currently acting on the receptor into the energy of nervous processes. Feeling as a mental phenomenon in the absence of a response of the body or in case of its inadequacy is impossible.

Perception is a sensual reflection of an object or phenomenon of objective reality that affects our senses. The perception of a person is not only a sensual image, but also the awareness of an object that stands out from the environment and opposes the subject. The possibility of perception implies the ability of the subject not only to respond to a sensory stimulus, but also to realize, accordingly, a sensory quality as a property of a particular object. Perception presupposes a rather high development of not only the sensory, but also the motor apparatus. The perception of the spatial arrangement of things is quite obviously formed in the process of real motor mastery of space - first by means of grasping movements, and then movements.

Perception is based on the sensory data of sensations delivered by our sense organs under the influence of external stimuli acting at the moment. An attempt to separate perception from sensation is clearly untenable.

But at the same time, perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations. It is always a more or less complex whole, qualitatively different from those elementary sensations that are part of it. Every perception includes a reproduced past experience, and the thinking of the perceiver, and - in a certain sense - also his feelings and emotions. Reflecting objective reality, perception does this not passively, not in a deadly mirror image, because in it the entire mental life of the particular person of the perceiver is simultaneously refracted.

Perception is a form of knowledge of reality.

2 . In andthe senses and perception

Sensations arise as a result of the action of a certain stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the classification of sensations proceeds from the properties of the stimuli that cause them, the receptors that are affected by these stimuli. According to the nature of the reflection and the location of the receptors, it is customary to divide sensations into three groups:

1) exteroceptive, reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment and having receptors on the surface of the body;

2) interoceptive, having receptors located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflecting the state of the internal organs;

3) proprioceptive, whose receptors are located in muscles and ligaments; they give information about the movement and position of our body.

The subclass of proprioception, which is the sensitivity to movement, is also called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are kinesthetic or kinesthetic.

Exteroceptors can be divided into two groups: contact and distant receptors. Contact receptors transmit irritation upon direct contact with objects that act on them; such are the tactile, taste buds. Distant receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object; disciplinary are visual, auditory, olfactory.

We have named five receptors corresponding to the types of sensations: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste, identified more Aristotle. In fact, there are many more types of sensations.

The composition of touch, along with tactile sensations, includes a completely independent type of sensations - temperature.

An intermediate position between tactile and auditory sensations is occupied by vibrational sensations. A large role in the overall process of human orientation in the environment is played by sensations of balance and acceleration. Common for different analyzers and pain sensations, signaling the destructive power of the stimulus.

From the point of view of the data of modern science, the accepted division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) is not enough. Some types of sensations can be considered external-internal. These include: temperature and pain, taste and vibration, muscular-articular and static-dynamic.

The most important features of perception:

1) Objectivity of perception

It is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. in referring information received from the outside world to this world. Without such a reference, perception cannot fulfill its orienting regulatory function in a person's practical activity.

Objectivity plays a special role in the regulation of behavior. We usually define objects not by their appearance, but by how we use them in practice or by their basic properties. And this helps the objectivity of perception.

Objectivity plays an important role in the further formation of the perceptual processes themselves, i.e. perception processes. When there is a discrepancy with the external world and its reflection, the subject is forced to look for new ways of perception that provide a more correct reflection.

2) Integrity of perception

Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object that affects the sense organ, perception is a holistic image of the object. This holistic image is formed on the basis of the generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of the object, obtained in the form of various sensations.

3) Structural perception

Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over a period of time.

The sources of integrity and structure of perception lie in the features of the reflected objects themselves, on the one hand, and in the objective activity of a person, on the other. THEM. Sechenov emphasized that the integrity and structure of perception are the result of the reflex activity of analyzers.

4)Constancy of perception

Due to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (a perceptual system is a set of analyzers that provides a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc.

The real source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. From the diverse and changeable stream of movements of the receptor apparatuses and response sensations, the subject singles out a relatively constant, invariant structure of the perceived object. Multiple perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the invariance of the perceptual image with respect to these changing conditions, as well as the movements of the receptor apparatus itself, therefore, gives rise to the constancy of this image.

The property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adjusts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. The constancy of perception formed in the process of subject detail is a necessary condition for human life and activity.

5) Meaningfulness of perception

Perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. A person's perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of an object. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. to attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, to generalize it in a word. Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the senses, but is a dynamic search for the best interpretation, explanation of the available data.

3 . Helladaptationand sensory sensitization

Adaptation, or fixture,- this is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of the stimulus.

Three types of this phenomenon can be distinguished:

1. Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation in the process of prolonged action of the stimulus. In the case of constant stimuli, the sensation tends to fade. For example, a light load resting on the skin soon ceases to be felt. The distinct disappearance of olfactory sensations shortly after we enter an atmosphere with an unpleasant odor is also a common fact. Full adaptation of the visual analyzer under the action of a constant and immobile stimulus does not occur. This is due to compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to the movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Constant voluntary and non-voluntary eye movements ensure the continuity of the visual sensation.

2. Adaptation is also called another phenomenon, close to the one described, which is expressed in the dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, when a hand is immersed in cold water, the intensity of the sensation caused by a cold stimulus decreases. When we move from a semi-dark room into a brightly lit space, we are at first blinded and unable to distinguish any details around. After some time, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases sharply, and vision returns to normal. This decrease in the sensitivity of the eyes to intense light stimulation is called light adaptation.

The described two types of adaptation can be combined with the term negative adaptation, since as a result of them the sensitivity of the analyzers decreases.

3. Adaptation is called an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This kind of adaptation, which is characteristic of certain types of sensations, can be defined as positive adaptation.

In the visual analyzer, this is thermal adaptation, when the sensitivity of the eye increases under the influence of being in the dark. A similar form of auditory adaptation is silence adaptation. In temperature sensations, positive adaptation is found when a pre-cooled hand feels warm, and a pre-heated hand feels cold when immersed in water of the same temperature.

Studies have shown that some analyzers detect fast adaptation, others slow. For example, touch receptors adapt very quickly. The visual receptor adapts relatively slowly (the time of dark adaptation reaches several tens of minutes), the olfactory and gustatory receptors.

Adaptation helps, by means of the sense organs, to catch weak stimuli and to protect the sense organs from excessive irritation in the event of an extraordinary force of influence.

The phenomenon of adaptation can be explained by those peripheral changes that occur in the functioning of the receptor during prolonged exposure to a stimulus.

The phenomenon of adaptation is also explained by the processes taking place in the central sections of the analyzer. With prolonged stimulation, the cerebral cortex responds with internal protective inhibition, which reduces sensitivity. The development of inhibition causes increased excitation of other organs, which contributes to an increase in sensitivity in new conditions (the phenomenon of successive mutual induction).

The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called sensitization.

The physiological mechanism for the interaction of sensations is the processes of irradiation and concentration of excitation in the cerebral cortex, where the central sections of the analyzers are represented. As a result of the irradiation of the excitation process, the sensitivity of another analyzer increases. Under the action of a strong stimulus, a process of excitation occurs, which, on the contrary, has a tendency to concentration. According to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in the sensitivity of the latter.

Changes in the sensitivity of the analyzers can be caused by exposure to secondary signal stimuli. Thus, the facts of changes in the electrical sensitivity of the eyes and tongue in response to the presentation of the words "sour as a lemon" to the subjects were obtained. These changes were similar to those with actual irritation of the tongue with lemon juice.

Knowing the patterns of changes in the sensitivity of the sense organs, it is possible, by using specially selected side stimuli, to sensitize one or another receptor, i.e. increase its sensitivity.

Sensitization can also be achieved through exercise. It is known, for example, that pitch hearing develops in children who study music.

4. Illusions perceivedand I

Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. It includes the past experience of a person in the form of ideas and knowledge.

Illusions of perception (from Latin illusio - error, delusion) - an inadequate reflection of the perceived object and its properties. Sometimes the term “perceptual illusions” refers to the configurations of stimuli themselves that cause such inadequate perception.

Currently, the most studied are the illusory effects observed in the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images. These so-called "optical-geometric illusions" consist in the apparent distortion of the metric relationships between image fragments.

The phenomenon of brightness contrast belongs to another class of perception illusions. So, a gray stripe on a light background seems darker than on a black one.

Many illusions of visible movement are known: autokinetic movement (chaotic movements of an objectively stationary light source observed in complete darkness), stroboscopic movement (the appearance of an impression of a moving object upon the rapid sequential presentation of two stationary stimuli in close spatial proximity), induced movement (apparent movement of an immovable object in direction opposite to the movement of the surrounding background).

Optical illusions (more narrowly - visual illusions) - errors in visual perception caused by inaccuracy or inadequacy of the processes of unconscious correction of the visual image (lunar illusion, incorrect assessment of the length of segments, the magnitude of the angles or color of the depicted object, illusions of movement, "the illusion of the absence of an object" - banner blindness, etc.), as well as physical causes (“flattened moon”, “broken spoon” in a glass of water). The causes of optical illusions are investigated both when considering the physiology of vision, and as part of the study of the psychology of visual perception.

Illusions of perception of non-visual nature include, for example, Charpentier's illusion: from two objects of equal weight, but different sizes, the smaller one seems heavier. There are also various installation illusions, studied in detail by D.N. Uznadze and his students.

Some perception illusions are complex: for example, in a weightless situation, with unusual stimulation of the vestibular apparatus, the assessment of the position of visual and acoustic objects is disturbed. There are also illusions of touch, time, color, temperature, etc.

There is currently no unified theory explaining all the illusions of perception. It is generally accepted that illusory effects, as shown by the German scientist G. Helmholtz, are the result of the work in unusual conditions of the same perception mechanisms that under normal conditions ensure its constancy.

Numerous studies are devoted to the discovery of the determinants of the optical and physiological nature of illusions. Their appearance is explained by the structural features of the eye, the specifics of the processes of encoding and decoding information, the effects of irradiation, contrast, etc. The studies fix the social determinants of the transformation of images - features of the motivational and need spheres, the influence of emotional factors, past experience, the level of intellectual development.

Transformation of images of objective reality occurs under the influence of integral formations of the personality: attitudes, semantic formations, "pictures of the world". By changing the characteristics of the perception of illusions, one can determine the global characteristics and qualities of a person - his state in a situation of perception (fatigue, activity), character and type of personality, status and self-esteem, pathological changes, susceptibility to suggestion.

Recently, experimental data have been obtained, indicating a change in the vision of illusions by the subjects of perception in a situation of actualizing their image of a significant other. In these studies, the emphasis is shifted from the study of the characteristics of perception to the study of the personal qualities of a person.

5. Feeling valueand perception in human life

sensation perception illusory sensitization

Sensation, as such, is a rather complicated mental phenomenon, as it seems at first glance. Despite the fact that this is a fairly well-studied phenomenon, the global nature of its role in the psychology of activity and cognitive processes is underestimated by man. Sensations are widespread in ordinary human life, and in the continuous process of cognitive activity for people it is an ordinary primary form of the psychological connection of the organism with the environment. Partial or complete absence of types of sensation (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch) in a person prevents or hinders its development. Sensations are of great importance for the formation of such cognitive processes as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, attention and perception, as well as for the development of activities as a specific type of human activity aimed at creating objects of material and spiritual culture, transforming one's abilities, preserving and improving nature, and the building of society.

Sensation is the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that affect the brain through the corresponding sense organs.

Sensations are considered the simplest of all mental phenomena. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. As for conscious sensations, they exist only in living beings that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. This, in particular, is proved by the fact that when the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system is inhibited, the work of the cerebral cortex is temporarily turned off in a natural way or with the help of biochemical preparations, a person loses the state of consciousness and, along with it, the ability to have sensations, that is, to feel, to consciously perceive the world. . This happens during sleep, during anesthesia, with painful disturbances of consciousness.

The creative nature of the activity of a living being is manifested in the fact that, thanks to the activity, it goes beyond its limitations, surpasses its own genotypically conditioned capabilities. However, sensations have a huge influence on activity. Without them, any activity is impossible or would be very difficult. If a person completely or partially lacks one of the cognitive processes (hearing, sight, smell, taste, etc.), then this sharply reduces the scope of the chosen profession.

visual sensations

When the action of the cone apparatus is weakened, a person poorly distinguishes or does not distinguish chromatic colors at all. This disease is called "color blindness" (after the English physicist Dalton, who first described it). Color blindness is a serious visual impairment and must be taken into account as a contraindication when choosing driver and operator professions that are associated with color indication.

auditory sensations

The weakening of the activity of the hearing aid affects the choice of active professions, of which auditory sensations are an integral part, for example, teaching, telephonists, salesmen, doctors, lawyers, translators, radio hosts, etc.

Olfactory sensations

This type of sensation influences the choice of profession, where the sense of smell is the main professional tool. It should be noted that there are not many such professions. The brightest of them are a cook, a person involved in testing perfumery products, etc.

vibration sensations

The need for vibration sensitivity increases in activities where vibration becomes a malfunction in the operation of the machine. These are all kinds of technical operators, drivers, mechanics, etc.

Taste sensations

The weakening of the activity of taste sensations is a contraindication when choosing the profession of a cook, for whom sensations of this type are a professional tool.

Skin sensations

In some professions, it is important for a person to know not only the location of individual parts of his body, but also the whole body and be able to perform working movements when the body changes in space (divers, paratroopers, astronauts, pilots, sailors, high-altitude fitters, etc.). Therefore, the weakening of the activity of the corresponding sensations can be a serious limitation of these types of activity.

It should be noted that sensations also greatly affect perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech; in the absence of sensations, other cognitive processes will be limited or impossible. Perception is not represented without sensations, since it occurs through the influence of our senses on objects and phenomena of the objective world, together with the processes of sensation, perception provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world.

6. Connection of perception and attention

Perception is the mental process of reflecting an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties and parts.

As well as sensation, perception arises from the direct impact of objects of the external world at a given moment on the sense organs, but at the same time, perception is not reduced to a simple sum of individual sensations, but represents a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition. In perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations of the same and different modality into integral images of things and events, with which attention, memory, thinking, and emotions subsequently operate. A person always ascribes sensations to himself, i.e. they are in ourselves, and the perceived properties of objects, their images are localized in space.

Perception involves participation in creating the image of surrounding objects, not only sensations, but also all other mental processes. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, on the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception. Stimulus signals that are more familiar and more common in life experience are recognized automatically, almost immediately.

If we know little about the perceived object, then our brain acts by hypotheses, which it checks one by one, choosing the most acceptable one. The influence of past experience on the process of perception is especially clearly manifested in experiments with distorting glasses: in the first days of the experiment, when the subject saw all objects upside down, the only exceptions were those whose reversed image was contrary to common sense and was physically impossible (for example, a lit candle is always was oriented with the flame upwards).

Perceptions are often classified according to the degree of direction and concentration of consciousness on a particular object (attention). In this case, it is possible to distinguish between unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary) perceptions. Intentional perception is essentially an observation. The success of an observation largely depends on prior knowledge of the observed object. Purposeful formation of the skill of observation is an indispensable condition for the professional training of a specialist; it also forms an important quality of personality - observation.

Attention is the most important quality that characterizes the process of selecting the necessary information and discarding the superfluous. The fact is that thousands of signals from the outside world enter the human brain every second. If there were no attention (a kind of filter), then our brain could not avoid overload. Attention has certain properties: volume, stability, concentration, selectivity, distribution, switchability and arbitrariness. Violation of each of these properties leads to deviations in human behavior and activity. A small amount of attention is the inability to concentrate on several objects at the same time, to keep them in mind.

The possibility of perception, and therefore of having a point of view or, in a clever way, an assemblage point, is provided with the help of attention. In order to have the opportunity to do something with your attention during life, it is also divided into two parts.

With the help of the first type of attention, a person perceives concrete, dense things, the world of objects, objects. For their perception, a person has five senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste, sensation. The possession of this attention of a person is now taught from childhood.

The second attention is called that part of the spectrum of perception, which relates to the perception of the abstract. Everything that cannot be touched, smelled, picked up can be attributed to the abstract. These are connections, laws, ideas, opportunities, trends, knowledge, beauty, spirit. These abstract things are as real as concrete things, they really exist and work. For example, the possibility of something, it really either exists or it doesn’t, but it’s impossible to give it to a person who does not believe in it. The connection between two people, a thin thread that connects them, really exists, although it is not fixed by devices. The manifestation of any law in the objective world, whether it be the law of universal gravitation or the law of karma, is obvious and immutable (under the conditions in which this law operates), but it can be seen as a general law only using the second attention, an abstract look.

According to modern psychologists, concentration of attention over time facilitates the perception of visual stimuli, as if enhancing their contrast. However, Samuel Ling of the University of New York (New York University), together with his colleagues, conducted experiments that refuted this established opinion.

In the course of his research, Ling showed subjects alternating dark and light stripes, and then asked how they tilted in the picture - to the left or to the right. This task turned out to be all the more difficult, the smaller the contrast between the stripes.

The scientists found that if people specifically focused on certain sets of bands at the beginning of the experiment, they could do the job even if the contrast was minimal.

However, after performing a series of tasks while focusing on these stripes, the subjects' perception began to gradually deteriorate, and in order to cope with the test, more and more contrasting images were required.

Thus, according to Ling's conclusion, as a result of concentration of attention, the perception of images with weak contrast improves only for a while, and in the future, when considering the same stimuli, it only worsens.

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The relationship between sensation and perception. Sensation and perception Individual specifics of the development of sensation and perception

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