India is a beautiful and mysterious country; has attracted my attention for a long time, mainly due to its architecture. Especially the desire to know how all this was built? For example, here it is:

Rock-hewn Kailasanatha temple, view from above

I do not really believe in the official version that it was carved into the rock by hand. The area of ​​the temple from above is about 3000 m² (58x51m), the volume is about 97,000 m3. And it's not limestone, but basalt. Of course, not all of this volume had to be taken out - in the center there was a carved temple building with an area of ​​1980 m² (approx. 30,000 m3). So figuratively taking it out is even more difficult. It's one thing to just hammer with a sledgehammer and take out the rubble, and it's quite another thing to hammer it so that the result is like this:

In the past, then, such things were created by hand, probably without drawings? And in our time to repeat this, using all our modern technology, is it weak? Therefore, not entirely trusting modern sources, I thought that maybe the ancients would shed more light on this issue? And I turned my attention to Strabo (a Greek geographer who lived in the 1st century BC, who wrote the "Geographical Encyclopedia" in 17 volumes). I’ll warn you right away that I haven’t been able to find an answer to this question yet, but I dug up a lot of interesting things for myself. What I share.

Geographic location of India

Strabo describes India thus:

"This is the first and largest country lying to the east."

Further, he gives a description of the sources of information available at that time, from which he drew his information on geography. This characteristic, in my opinion, is still relevant today, since those sources are still our sources of knowledge about those times:

“Readers have to condescendingly accept information about this country, since it is farthest from us and only a few of our contemporaries managed to see it. However, even those who saw saw only some parts of this country, and most of the information is passed on by hearsay. Moreover, even what they saw in passing during a military campaign, they learned by picking up on the fly. That is why they report conflicting information about the same subject, writing down, however, all the facts as if they had been carefully verified. Some of them wrote even after joint participation in the campaign and stay in this country, such as Alexander's companions, who helped him conquer Asia. Nevertheless, all these writers often contradict each other. But if they differ so much in their accounts of what they have seen, then what should one think of what they report by hearsay?

He writes that the main routes at that time were by sea. Merchants got from Egypt to India through the Arabian Gulf and rarely reached the Ganges.

Map drawn by Strabo:

World map according to Strabo, clickable

In fact, this was not a representation of Strabo, but of Eratosthenes (Greek mathematician, astronomer, geographer, philologist and poet of the 3rd century BC). We can say that Strabo borrowed it.

Eratosthenes divided the territory known at that time, or rather, the territory developed by the people of that time, into two parts - northern and southern. The border between these two parts was marked by a mountain range called the Taurus (Taurus mons), running through almost the entire continent from the Mediterranean to the Pacific Ocean (in modern names). These two halves, in turn, were divided into parts, called at that time "sphragids". In the northern part there were only two sphragids: Europe and Scythia. And in the south - Libya (currently Libya, apparently, the name "Africa" ​​appeared later), Arabia, Syria, Persia, Ariana and India. At that time, apparently, China was also not yet known, and the territory of Seres, which was later called China, they attributed to Scythia. In addition to the horizontal division, there is also a clear vertical division on the map: everything that was indicated in red is called Asia. Following the logic of this coloring, one can come to the conclusion that all parts of Asia were somehow united with each other, i.e. they were, if not a single state, then some kind of community, as opposed to Europe and Libya, which were not united by the same color according to the same principle.

Iberia - according to Strabo, the most western country, and India - the most eastern, i.e. behind it is only the ocean. Strabo further describes the size of India, referring to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Modern scholars believe that Eratosthenes' measurements were not very accurate. Although this assessment is complicated by the fact that it is now unknown which stages he used. Since the various stages vary from 157.5 to 209.4 m. But let's take the arithmetic mean - about 185 m - and translate its dimensions into modern ones:

“As for the length, it is considered from west to east. The part of this length up to Palibofrov can be determined more reliably, since it measured with a measuring cord and is the royal road at a distance of 10,000 stadia(1850 km).

The length of the parts behind Palibofry is presumably calculated during the voyage from the sea up the Ganges to Palibofrov. This length may be something like 6000 furlongs. Thus, the total length of the country, namely the smallest, will be 16,000 stadia (3000 km); this figure, according to Eratosthenes, is taken from " List of road stations», usually the most reliable. Megasthenes also agrees with Eratosthenes, while Patroclus takes 1000 stadia less. If we add to this distance the length of the promontory, which protrudes further to the east, then these 3,000 stadia will make up the greatest length (i.e. 19,000 stadia - 3515 km). The latter is the distance from the mouths of the Indus along the next coast to the mentioned cape and the eastern limits of India, where the so-called koniacs live.

Modern view of India:

Its greatest size from north to south is approximately 3200 km, from west to east - 4500 km, if we count the eastern part of India, almost cut off from the main part by the Republic of Bangladesh. Although the borders of India could have changed more than once since then, nevertheless, the measurements of the ancients approximately coincide with the current dimensions of India, although Strabo accuses his contemporaries and predecessors of the inaccuracies they allow.

Royal Road and Postal Service

I found on the Internet a mention of the Royal Road, but located not in India, but to the west - in the territories of modern Turkey, Iraq and Iran:

Map of the Royal Road

“Royal Road: According to the Greek explorer Herodotus of Halicarnassus (5th century BC), the road connecting the capital of Lydia, Sardes, and the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Susa and Persepolis. Other similar roads are known from cuneiform texts.

Herodotus describes the road between Sardes and Susa in the following words:

As far as this road is concerned, the truth is this. Everywhere there are royal stations with excellent resting places, and the whole road passes through a country that is inhabited and safe.

1. Through Lydia and Phrygia there are twenty stages, making up 520 kilometers.
2. After the confluence of the river Phrygia into the river Halis, which has a gate through which one must pass in order to cross the river, and a strong guard post is established there.
3. Then, passing through Cappadocia, which has twenty-eight stages (572 km) to the borders of Cilicia.
4. At the borders of Cilicia, you will pass through two rows of gates and guard posts: then, passing through them, three more stages (85 km) to drive through Cilicia.
5. The border between Cilicia and Armenia is a navigable river called the Euphrates. In Armenia, the number of stages with resting places is fifteen (310 km), and there are security posts along the way.
6. Then from Armenia, when you get to the land of Matiene, there are thirty-four stages, making up 753 kilometers. 4 navigable rivers flow through this country, which can only be crossed by ferries, first the Tigris, then the second and third, called by the same name - Zabatus, although they are not the same river.
7. Passing from there to the Cissian land, pass eleven stages (234 km) to the river Chaspes, which is also navigable; and the city of Susa was built on it. The total number of stages is only one hundred and eleven.

This is how Herodotus describes the work of the postal service using this road:

“There is nothing in the world faster than these messengers: the Persians have such a clever postal service! They say that throughout the whole journey they have horses and people arranged, so that for each day of the journey there is a special horse and person. Neither snow, nor downpour, nor heat, nor even the night time can prevent each rider from galloping at full speed for the designated segment of the path. The first messenger conveys the news to the second, and the latter to the third. And so the message passes from hand to hand until it reaches the goal, like torches at the Hellenic feast in honor of Hephaestus. The Persians call this equestrian mail "angareion". [Herodotus, Histories 8.98.]

“The development of postal relations in former Rus' had partly influence and domination of the Tatars, who, even in the places of their former stay in Asia, arranged special camps on travel roads for their officials, ambassadors and messengers, and the neighboring inhabitants, by order of the khan, had to deliver horses and all kinds of food to these camps. The very words that have become so common in Russian: "yam" and "coachman" - Tatar words. Of these, the first comes from "dzyam" - the road, and the second from "yam-chi" - the conductor. The arrangement of pits multiplied so much that in the 17th century Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Nizhny Novgorod and Seversk cities, and later Ukrainian ones, mainly Novgorod and Pskov, through which foreign ambassadors passed to the capital, were connected by pits to Moscow.

Travel letters began to appear already in the 15th century. The oldest of them dates back to 1493.

Of the foreigners, the well-known baron Herberstein, who was in the Muscovite state at the beginning of the 16th century, first reported information about the Yamskaya ride in Russia. He writes: “The Grand Duke of Moscow has coachmen with a sufficient number of horses in different places of his principality, so that wherever the prince sends his messenger, horses will be found everywhere for him. The messenger has the right to choose the horse that seems to him the best. At each pit, horses were changed for us. There was no shortage of fresh horses. Whoever demanded 10 or 12 of them, they brought them 40 and 50. The tired ones were left on the road and replaced by others who were taken in the first village or from those passing by. ( )

By Tatars they mean, of course, Tartars. From another source (Gurlyand I. Ya. Yamskaya chase in the Moscow State until the end of the 17th century. Yaroslavl. 1900):

The border of the village, apparently, the outskirts of the settlement. Previously, settlements-settlements were surrounded by walls and ditches. Which were called pits? That is, it may well be a Russian word. And not only Persian, Turkic or Tatar. But for some reason, they tried to hide the presence of a postal service in Russia in the Middle Ages:

Or explain its occurrence by someone's foreign influence:

Although the Tartars are not foreigners at all in relation to Russians. It turns out in general a perverted distortion: first to declare one's own as foreign, and then to borrow something else from them. When other countries try to glorify themselves at every opportunity that arises, Russia has apparently always been "famous" for belittling itself as much as possible. Although the Russianness of these "degraders" can also be called into question.

But I have completely digressed from India. Everything takes me to the Native Penates.

Ancient Indian capital

In that quote, Strabo also mentions a very specific place - the city of Palibofry. This is how Strabo describes the city of Palibophra, or rather not Strabo himself, but Megasthenes, whom he quotes:

“At the confluence of the Ganges with another river, they say, the Palibofras are located - 80 stages long and 15 wide, in the form of a parallelogram; the city is surrounded by a wooden fence with holes cut through it, so that through these gaps you can shoot with a bow. A ditch stretches in front of the tyn, serving both for protection and for draining sewage flowing from the city. The tribe in whose region this city is located is called the Prasii; it is the most wonderful of all. The king must, in addition to his own name received at birth, also have a name identical with the city, and be called Palibofrom, such as Sandrocott, to whom Megasthenes was sent as an ambassador.

Not only this, but also many other descriptions of India, Strabo took from Megasthenes, calling him a false writer. Megasthenes is a Greek traveler who lived in the 3rd century BC. The records of Megasthenes have not survived to our time, but extensive excerpts from them are given by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Arrian. Megasthenes calls Palibofra the chief city of India. Its other name is Pataliputra. It is believed that it was built in 490 BC as a small fort on the Ganges River. If this is indeed the city mentioned by Strabo, then it turns out that the Royal Road was much longer than it is known now.

Location of Pataliputra on a modern map of India

In this regard, I recall another building that resembles a road - the rampart of Genghis Khan.

Climate of India

Further, Strabo describes the climate of India, based on the words of Eratosthenes. This is another fact that I noticed: very many of the sources I reviewed consist of excerpts from earlier sources. And it turns out that this applies not only to later sources - 16-18 centuries, but also to such early sources as Strabo. He himself lived in the 1st century BC. But he constantly refers to authors who lived 100-200 years earlier than him. This is how Strabo describes the appearance of the Indians:

“As for the population, the southern Indians are similar in skin color to the Ethiopians, and in facial features and hair - to other people (because of the humidity of the air their hair is not curly), while the northern Indians are similar to the Egyptians”

Those. southerners are black and northerners are white. Description of winter in India:

“Aristobulus reports that only the mountains and foothills of India are irrigated with rain and covered with snow; the plains, on the contrary, are devoid of both rain and snow, and receive moisture only from the overflow of rivers. In winter the mountains are covered with snow; with the onset of spring, the rains begin, more and more intensifying, and during the trade winds they already pour out continuously day and night with great force until the rising of Arcturus; and rivers overflowing with water from snow and rain irrigate the plains.

Cities at the top artificial hills, form islands (similar to how it happens in Egypt and Ethiopia) "

Unfortunately, ancient authors do not report exactly how artificial hills are built. Since it is not so easy to fill up hills of such a size that entire cities can fit on them. But, apparently, for them it was not a curiosity? After all, as described here, in Egypt and Ethiopia, the cities were arranged according to the same principle.

“Aristobulus points out the similarity of this country with Egypt and Ethiopia and emphasizes their difference - the fact that the Nile floods from the southern rains, while the Indian rivers from the northern ones.

From his reports, it can be assumed with probability that this country is subject to strong earthquakes, since from high humidity the earth becomes loose and cracks, so that even rivers change their channels. In any case, he says that, sent on some mission, he saw a country with more than a thousand cities, along with villages, abandoned by the inhabitants, because the Indus, leaving its former channel and turning left into another channel, much deeper, flows rapidly, tumbling down like a cataract (waterfall), so the area left on the right is no longer flooded by the flood of the river, since it now lies not only above the new channel, but also above the water level at the time of the flood.

All authors (whose descriptions are given by Strabo) indicate that the land in India is fertile and gives a rich harvest twice a year. Therefore, a lot of grain is grown there, including millet, rice, wheat, barley, as well as flax, many different vegetables and fruits. As well as exotic plants for Europeans. And huge trees

“Regarding the size of the trees, he reports that 5 people can hardly cover their trunks.

Aristobulus mentions that near Akesin and its confluence with Gyarotida there are trees with branches inclined to the ground, of such a size that under the shade of one tree 50 riders can indulge in a midday rest (and according to Onesicritus - even 400).

However, as for the stories about the size of the trees, all were eclipsed by the writers who report that they saw a tree beyond Gyarotida, giving a shadow 5 stages long at noon.

5 stages is about 1 km. How tall must a tree be to give such a shadow at noon? Although perhaps the ancient authors were slightly lying? Or Kadykchansky is right, arguing that it is not India that is described here, but more northern latitudes. Many drugs and poisons are also produced in India. But:

“Aristobulus, moreover, adds that the Indians have a law that punishes with death the inventor of some deadly drug, if he has not invented an antidote; if he invented an antidote, then he receives a reward from the kings ”

Alexander the Great in India

Describes Strabo and the adventures of Alexander the Great in these places. Frightened by a strong flood of rivers and, in connection with this, difficult terrain for his army, he climbed to explore the mountains:

“Alexander learned that the mountainous and northern regions are the most inhabited and fertile, while the southern region, on the contrary, is partly waterless, and partly subject to floods and completely burned out, so that it is more suitable for wild animals than for human habitation. Be that as it may, he set out on a campaign to first capture this illustrious country, counting at the same time that those rivers that he had to overcome, it was better to cross near the sources, since they flowed across, cutting the country he wanted cross. At the same time, he heard that some rivers merge into one stream, and more and more, the farther they flow, so that this country becomes more and more difficult to pass, especially with a lack of ships. For fear of this, Alexander crossed the Kofu River and began to conquer the mountainous region that faces east.

Having reached Gipanis, he stopped, because his army could no longer withstand the difficulties of the campaign. The warriors were exhausted by the incessant downpours. In ancient times, three rivers were called Gipanis: the Southern Bug River in southern Ukraine, the Kuban River in southern Russia, and the Beas River in the Punjab state of India, which is also called Ardzhikudzha - in the Vedas or Vipasha in ancient Indian texts, and Hyphasis among the ancient Greeks. It is located in the north of India.

“After Cophas came the Indus, Hydaspes, Akesinus, Gyarotida, and finally Hypanis. Alexander was prevented from penetrating further, firstly, by respect for some oracles, and secondly, he was forced to stop by his army, which could no longer withstand the overwhelming difficulties of the campaign. However, most of all the soldiers suffered from dampness during incessant downpours. From the eastern parts of India, therefore, we became aware of all the regions lying on this side of Hypanis, and even some of the lands beyond Hypanis, about which information was added by those who penetrated after Alexander beyond Hypanis to the Ganges and Palibofrov.

“Alexander made this decision and refused to penetrate into the eastern regions, firstly, because he met obstacles for crossing Hypanis; secondly, because of the fact that by experience he was convinced of the falsity of the rumors, to which he had previously attached importance, that the plains were scorched by the sun and were more suitable for wild animals than for the habitation of the human race. That is why Alexander entered the plains, abandoning the eastern ones, which is why the former are known to us better than the latter.

The lands between Hypanis and Hydaspes are said to be occupied by 9 tribes, and there are about 5000 cities, all no less than Kos, which is in Meropides; however, this figure seems to be exaggerated. Concerning the country between the Indus and the Hydaspes, I have already said what peoples, worth mentioning, are supposed to live there. Further, below them live the so-called Sibs (I also mentioned them), Malls and Sidraks - large tribes "

In ancient times, they loved to count cities by the thousands! Modern India, with its population of 1.3 billion people, has only 415 cities. But perhaps only large cities are included in this list. And if you count the villages too? Strabo writes that all the cities he mentioned were no smaller than Kos. The modern name of Kos is Chora. This city is located on the island of Astypalea in the Aegean Sea, its population is 1385 people. Archaeologists say that the modern city is equal in area to the ancient one, because it stands on old foundations.

Strabo does not mention the large tribes of malls and sidraks anywhere else, and the Sib tribe describes it as follows:

“When Alexander took the Aorn rock, at the foot of which the Indus flows, near its sources, with just one attack, his praisers declared that Hercules went to attack this rock three times and was repulsed three times. The descendants of the participants in the campaign of Hercules were the Sibs, who, according to them, preserved as a sign of their origin the custom of dressing like Hercules in animal skins, wearing clubs and burning a brand in the form of a club on bulls and mules. They try to support this myth with stories about the Caucasus and Prometheus. Indeed, they transfer here the scene of these myths from Pontus for a completely insignificant reason: because they found some sacred cave in the region of the paropamisades. This cave they gave out for the dungeon of Prometheus; here, according to them, Hercules came to free Prometheus, and this place is allegedly the Caucasus, which the Greeks declared the prison of Prometheus "

Indo-Greek kingdom

The region of paropamisads mentioned here is located on the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan (and earlier, it means that it was the territory of India or Greco-India after the beginning of the development of this territory by the Greeks). Its other name Paropamisus is Hindu Kush or Hindu Kush. It seems that this name means "Above the flight of an eagle." Having conquered this place, Alexander the Great founded a city here Alexandria Caucasian in 329 BC. e., which in the II-I centuries BC. e. was one of the capitals of the Indo-Greek kingdom, which arose as an expansion of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and existed from 180 BC. e. up to 10 a.d. e.

Ancient cities founded by Alexander the Great in Central and South Asia

Caucasian, because these mountains were also called Caucasian at that time. Here the ancients had a tension with the names! With Alexandria something is clear. There are plenty of them all over the world. Even in Ukraine and Belarus, where Macedonian probably was not (or was?). Or maybe the names of Alexandria are connected not only with Macedonian? After all, the name Alexander is quite common. There are also 3 Alexandrias in Australia, 2 in Canada, 22 in the USA, 1 more in Colombia, 1 in Brazil, 2 in South Africa (). But the Caucasus?

Location of the Indo-Greek Kingdom

However, Strabo, who lived in the 1st century BC, knew nothing about this kingdom (which existed at the same time). Therefore, he does not mention him in his book. Moreover, he claims that these places have been little studied by his fellow tribesmen. Later, the Mughal Empire was located on the same territory and much larger:

The Hindu Kush Mountains (Paropamisadas), among other things, are also known for such statues:

Buddha statues in Bamiyan, drawing 1896

And photo. The first was made in 1976, when the statues were still there, the second - after the destruction of the statues by the Islamist Taliban in 2001:

True, they were built later than the time when Alexander the Great founded his cities there, and the Sibs excavated a sacred cave. The smaller statue (35 m) was built in 507 AD and the larger statue (53 m) in 554 AD. AD Although personally I am still interested in the question: how were these statues made? With what tools? Here, even in the photo you can see that the surface of the niche is cut off like a knife. As if they took a giant electric jigsaw and carefully carved this niche in the rock. There, as if in mockery, people are specially standing for the scale. Holes - from wooden fittings, to which wooden elements were attached. Since the statues were lined with wood. Judging by the diameter of these holes, this reinforcement was the trunks of fairly large trees. Currently, the area there is not very wooded. Their faces were also wooden. In the drawing of 1896 they are drawn, but somehow it is not clear. And in the photo of 1976, the upper part of the face is already missing. And I don't know about Prometheus' dungeon, but ancient manuscripts have been discovered in the caves of the Hindu Kush. Some manuscripts were written in Gandhari and Haruhi, while others were written in Sanskrit.

Strabo writes nothing about the technologies of the ancient Indian builders. Probably because he doesn't know. But he gives descriptions of this country, which he considers mythical and mystical, they are so unusual in their content:

“According to the general opinion, the whole country on the other side of Gipanis is the best, however, there are no exact descriptions of it. The information transmitted by the writers is exaggerated and more fantastic due to their unfamiliarity with the country and its remoteness from us. (Eh, Strabo didn’t read our Wikipedia! About 300 written sources describing THOSE PLACES IN THAT TIME - my note) Such, for example, are stories about ants digging for gold, and other creatures - animals and people - peculiar in appearance and completely unusual in the sense of some of their natural data. So, for example, they talk about the durability of sulfurs, which stretch the life time even for 200 years. They talk about the aristocratic system in a certain sense of the state there, and the ruling council consists of 5000 advisers; each of them delivers an elephant to the state.

Strabo did hear about some state, but he describes it as "there", and not as "ours". And, apparently, the ancient authors loved the number 5000. There were 5000 cities between Hypanis and Hydaspes. The council consisted of 5000 advisers. That's really fantastic! The modern Russian State Duma has only 450 deputies.

I think that this is where I will finish my article about a little bit of everything, including about India.

In the design of the article, a fragment of the map by Paolo Toscanelli, 1475 was used.

If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.

When I was going to India, having heard about tropical diseases, I took a bunch of pills with me on the road, the names of which I don’t even remember. I was also strongly advised to take several vaccinations against all types of dengue fever, which I never did ... At the end of my story, I will tell you how it all ended.

Location of India

Geographically, India is located on one of the largest peninsulas of Eurasia - Hindustan. In the north, India is protected from the cold Arctic winds by the Tibetan Plateau, in the south it is washed by warm waters. indian ocean. Borders India with Pakistan- in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan - in the northeast. Bangladesh and Myanmar are located to the east of India. In addition to three dozen states, India includes a network of islands and two disputed territories.

Language and population

Population of India has exceeded 1 billion and occupies the 2nd place in the world "by accuracy" after China. According to the list of nationalities, India is among the leaders. There are so many of them that "the devil will break his leg." All that I remember from the names of these nations is the frequent endings "tsy" in the names. As for languages, there are several thousand of them. But you do not rush to get upset about this. More or less tolerably Indians (Indians) speak English: India not so long ago (by historical standards) was a colony of Great Britain.

Tourists - click here

In India, there are places that I advise every person who comes here to visit:

As for tropical diseases: I did not manage to pick up any of them. Either it was not the season, or he just washed his hands with soap ...

It is one of the most colorful and original in the world. The variety of spiritual and philosophical teachings, ancient architecture, the beauty of nature attract. There is a desire to visit the territory where India is located - the country of the ancient Vedas. This is a country where the beauty and grandeur of the temples amaze, and the music and magical atmosphere immerse you in the world of mystery and sensuality.

India on the world map

Where is India located on the world map? Geographically, the country adjoins South Asia and occupies a significant part of the Hindustan peninsula. India has a lot of neighbors - states. In the northwest, the country borders on Pakistan and Afghanistan. In the northeast - with China, Nepal and Bhutan. The Indian-Chinese border is the longest and runs along the main Himalayan range. In the east it borders on the states of Bangladesh and Myanmar. India has maritime borders in the southwest with the Maldives, in the south with Sri Lanka and in the southeast with Indonesia.

The area of ​​the country is quite large and is 3.3 million square meters. km. In the east, south and west, the peninsula is washed by the Bay of Bengal, the Laccadive and Arabian Seas. The major rivers of India are the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Indus, Krishna, Sabarmati.

Since the territory of the country is distinguished by its large size, different topography, the climate in different regions is different.

Where is India covered with snow? In the northern part of the country are the Himalayas - one of the highest mountain systems. Here the mountain tops and valleys are covered with snow. In the east of the country is the Ganges valley. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is located in the eastern and central part of the country, adjoining it from the west

State name

Where is India, whose name has changed several times? In ancient times, it was called the "country of the Aryans", "the country of the Brahmins", "the country of the sages". The modern name of the state of India comes from the name of the Indus River, the word "Sindu" in ancient Persian means "river". The country has a second name, translated from Sanskrit it sounds like Bharat. This name is associated with the history of the ancient Indian king, which is described in the Mahabharata. Hindustan is the third name of the country, it has been used since the reign of the Mughal Empire, but it has not been given official status. The Republic of India is the official name of the country, it appeared in the 19th century.

ancient india

On the territory where ancient India was located, one of the oldest civilizations in the world was born. Its history includes two periods. The first is the period of the Harappan civilization, which began its development in the Indus River valley. The second period - the Aryan civilization associated with the appearance in the valleys of the Ganges and Indus rivers Aryan tribes.

In the Harappan civilization, the main centers were the cities of Harappa (modern Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro ("Hill of the Dead"). The level of civilization was very high, this is evidenced by the buildings of cities with a harmonious layout and a drainage system. Writing was developed, and small-scale plastic art was developed in artistic culture: small figurines, seals with reliefs. But the Harappan culture has declined, due to climate change, river flooding and epidemics.

After the Harappan civilization ended its existence, Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Ganges and Indus rivers. Their appearance breathed new life into the Indian ethnos. From this period begins the Indo-Aryan period.

The main asset created by the Aryans of that period was a collection of texts - the Vedas. They are written in the Vedic language - the oldest form of Sanskrit.

Culture of Ancient India

The territory where India is located is the place of origin and development of religious and philosophical teachings. The culture of the ancient country is closely connected with the secrets of the universe. Since ancient times, people have been asking questions to the Universe, trying to unravel the meaning of life. A separate place is occupied by the teachings of yoga, where self-immersion into the world of the human soul takes place. The uniqueness of culture also lies in the fact that music and dance are a companion of any event or event. The originality and diversity of culture has largely developed due to the fact that both local peoples and newcomers participated in its formation.

The culture of Ancient India refers to the period from the middle of the III millennium BC. and up to the VI century. AD

The architecture of this period has its own characteristics. Not a single monument of ancient Indian culture has been preserved. This is due to the fact that the building material of that period was wood, which has not survived to our time. And since the III century. BC. stone is being used in construction. Architectural buildings of this period have survived to this day. The main religion of this period was Buddhism, and therefore characteristic structures were erected: stupas, stambhas, cave temples.

The culture of ancient India occupies an important place in world history. It had a greater impact on the entire world development.

Agra

The ancient city of Agra was founded in the 15th century. It is located on the banks of the Yamuna River. The city of Agra is very large, and in order not to get lost, you need a map. Where is India during the reign of the Moghuls, the walls of the ancient city will tell. In the capital of the Mughal Empire there were many palaces, parks, beautiful gardens.

Agra is an ancient city saturated with national color. Here you can see and get to know the people, plunge into the world of national cuisine, buy souvenirs made using the Florentine mosaic technique - Pietra Dura, which has been a national craft since the time of the Great Mughals.

The center of Agra, like many Indian cities, is a huge market. The city is home to one of the largest spas in all of Asia, Kaya Kalp.

Taj Mahal

India has one of them. The Taj Mahal, where the mausoleum of one of Shah Jahan's most beloved wives, Mumtaz Mahal, is located, is one of the attractions of Agra. Such an architectural structure has not been seen in the last 400 years.

Taj Mahal is a monument to love and in Hindi means "Crown of Palaces". He became the last gift for his beloved. The palace was built for 22 years, marble for it was mined for 300 km. The walls of the tomb are decorated with mosaics of precious and semi-precious stones, although when viewed from afar, the color of the mausoleum seems to be white. The proportions of the building are perfect. Even the fact that his minarets were rejected is not accidental. This is done so that in the event of an earthquake, the minarets do not fall on the mausoleum.

Taj Mahal is a pearl of Indian culture, which embodies the love and wealth of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

To determine where Ancient India is located on a modern map, it is worth first determining what exactly is considered as such. The vast majority of modern scholars are inclined to recognize the Harappan culture, which arose in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent in the Indus River valley, as the first Indian civilization. The most ancient traces date back to 3300 BC.

Geography of India

When answering the question of where India is located, it is worth starting with its place on the continent of Eurasia. The country is located in the southern part of Asia, and most of its territory is located on the Hindustan Peninsula, which is washed by the Bay of Bengal in the southwest and the Arabian Sea in the southeast.

The geological history of India, which began more than seventy-five million years ago, contributed to the formation of a rather distinctive geological, geographical and biological region, which today is called the Indian subcontinent.

The separation of the subcontinent is facilitated not only by the waters washing it from two sides, but also by the mountain ranges of the Himalayas, which are the highest mountains on the planet. It is in the Himalayas that the "peak of the planet" is located - Mount Chomolungma, also known as Everest. The hill plays the role of a natural border between India and China.

ancient history of india

The region where India is located has become one of the centers for the emergence of the most ancient civilizations of the East. In age, he is second only to the Sumerians and Egyptians. The culture arose in the north-west of the subcontinent, but by the 6th century, many independent principalities appeared in the territory of the entire north of India, which went down in history under the name of Mahajanapada.

By the 3rd century BC, the Mauryan Empire appeared on the territory of India, which rather quickly subjugated almost all of South Asia: from Afghanistan to modern Banladesh. The empire did not last long, but it was replaced by other successive governments. So there were: Greco-Indian, Indo-Scythian, Parthian-Indian and Kushan kingdoms.

Each of these states not only brought elements of their culture to Indian culture, but also contributed to the spread of elements of Indian culture to neighboring regions. Traces of the cultural influence of this civilization of antiquity can be found in Iranian culture, in Roman and, of course, in Greek.

foreign conquest

In the 10th century AD, the peninsula, where India is located, was invaded by passionate Islamic conquerors, who rather quickly conquered most of the peninsula and established the hegemony of Islam over a vast territory.

The first Islamic dynasty in the region was the Delhi Sultanate, which existed from 1206 to 1526. The Sultanate was replaced by the Mughal Empire, which managed to maintain the dominant position of Islam for another two centuries, but it also fell into decline, and was replaced by the Hindu Maratha Empire, created in 1624.

However, already in the 16th century, European merchants began to penetrate into the region where India is located, extremely interested in trade with a huge rich country. Portugal, France and the Netherlands made their attempts. However, Great Britain managed to achieve the greatest success, which by the middle of the 19th century subjugated most of the country, starting its conquest from small fragmented principalities.

However, the Portuguese colonists also managed to achieve some success. They subjugated that territory in India where Goa is located. The Portuguese administration existed on the site of the modern state until December 18, 1961, when Indian troops crushed the resistance of the Portuguese and occupied the territory of the former Portuguese colony. However, the accession of Goa to India was recognized by Portugal only in 1974.

Another Portuguese possession in South Asia was the coast where Kerala is in India. Today it is a state with one of the highest population densities in the entire country. And it is located on the Malabar coast.

East India Company

To conquer India, Britain chose an already proven technology - attracted private capital and technologies that could effectively capture new markets and bribe local rulers.

For this purpose, the British East India Company was created. The name of this large corporation indicates that the monopoly was engaged in trade in eastern India, that is, on the Hindustan peninsula.

In this case, it is necessary to clarify where the West Indies is located in order to avoid traditional confusion.

Historically, the West Indies are called the islands located off the coast of South America in the Caribbean Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico. First of all, we are usually talking about Cuba and Antigua.

Towards decolonization

Despite the fact that the liberation of India from foreign oppression and the beginning of decolonization was a positive event, it turned out that it could also have extremely negative consequences.

In 1946, a series of military mutinies demonstrated to the British authorities their inability to control the huge overseas territories in India, and the parliamentary elections that followed them once again demonstrated the need to start moving towards the independence of a huge country.

The first active participants in the military resistance to the British military were Muslims, who proclaimed a day of direct action in 1946. As a result of this action, a series of bloody clashes between Hindus and Muslims swept across the country. The need to divide India along religious and ethnic lines became obvious not only to the local population, but also to Her Majesty's government.

Partition of India

On August 15, 1947, Great Britain announced the creation of the Dominion of Pakistan, and the very next day it became known that the Indian Union had declared independence. This decision led to extremely bloody events and clashes, the victims of which were about a million people, and another eighteen million were forced to leave their homes and move to other regions.

The decision to divide the British possessions before the declaration of sovereignty by India was taken so that the creation of Pakistan would not look like its separation from sovereign India. Thus, both countries had equal rights and should not have claims against each other. However, this solution did not help to avoid territorial disputes in the future.

As a result of such large migration flows, a huge number of problems have arisen. The city of Delhi has experienced the greatest burden, with one to two million people settled there. A large number of people could not find a permanent home and were forced to settle in refugee camps.

However, the government of the new country soon began an active program to build permanent houses on the site of the tents.

Economy of India

The part of the world where India and China are located is of great importance for the modern international economy. Both countries are among the three largest economic powers in terms of GDP, second only to the United States. However, the size of the economy should not be misleading, as over the past decades, India has accumulated numerous problems that are still unresolved.

The level of social inequality and poverty in the country is extremely high, and traditional customs in many regions take precedence over secular laws.

Most economists agree that despite the significant efforts of the authorities to modernize, the state's economy still has the character of an agro-industrial one and does not reach the post-industrial level.

social structure

The caste system of society still continues to have a significant impact on all spheres of social and economic relations. Within it, they are born, nurtured and die. Each of these stages is marked by rituals peculiar to one or another caste. Even the names of the child are given in accordance with his social position.

Until recently, any Indian, when applying for a job, was obliged to indicate in the appropriate column not only his religion, but also the caste to which he belongs. Marriages between people belonging to different strata were not registered, and if young people still dared to bind their destinies, then there could be no question of recognizing such marriages by society.

In addition, one of the most cruel customs practiced until recently in the country was the ritual self-immolation of widows.

However, some less progressive economists believe that such a centuries-old system helps the traditional economy function better. However, in this case, the question of why a traditional economy is needed in the 21st century remains open.

www.syl.ru

The ancient city of Lothal, which arose 2400 years ago. BC.

In the South Indian state of Karnataka, on the banks of the river with the unpronounceable name Tungabhadra, among the mighty granite boulders, are the ruins of the capital of the once powerful Vijayanagara Empire. The remains of Vijayanagara belong to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, where they are listed as the "Hampi Monuments". It seems that nature itself gave people a scoop and a sandbox to realize their desires and ambitions. Outcrops of gray coarse-grained granite in the heart of the Deccan Plateau, the presence of water arteries and fertile soil have attracted people here since the 1st century AD.

Once upon a time, almost half a million people lived here, and it was one of the largest cities in India.

Various crafts, literature, music and architecture have reached the greatest development here. Countless travelers from all over the world have tried in vain to describe the wonders of Vijayanagara.

A reasonable question arises: "How did the masters cut and process strong and dense granite"? Many pseudo-scientists claim that ancient peoples cut these huge boulders with a laser or incredible space technologies.

A "thousand columns" stretch along the road. Their purpose is not known for certain. It remains to be assumed that earlier there were covered shopping arcades for the city market.

This is a real masterpiece of stone carvers - a granite chariot. Now you can see that there are elephants in the team. However, there used to be horses in their place.

Culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

mohenjo-daro

Hercules on the seals of the city

Ware from Mohenjo-Daro

Harappan culture

On the streets of Mohenjo-Daro

decoration from Mohenjo-Daro

Tools

Table lamp

In all likelihood, the Harappans traded with the Sumerians. In the Sumerian writings, cities were mentioned with which they traded. Among them was a city called Meluke, scientists identify it with the proto-Indian city of Mohenjo - Daro. In large quantities, the remains of cotton fabrics, a variety of faience beads, shells were found on the Harappan territory - all of this was of foreign origin.

Excavation at Mohenjo-Daro

Seals from Mohenjo-Daro

Pottery and textile tools were found among the ruins. Pottery workshops were located throughout the city. Almost everything was made there, from pipes and bricks to thin-walled vessels, elegant figurines and jewelry. Residents also used items made of copper, tin, bronze - these are tools, jewelry and weapons. True, the weapons were made very crudely, probably there were no military operations in this territory. The Harappan people were never able to master the smelting of iron.

Harappan pottery

Harappan game

Pre-Harappan culture

Harappan figurines

Harappan pottery

Terracotta figurines from Harappa

Terracotta

Harappan letter

One or two rooms for ablutions (in a modern way, two bathrooms), ventilation ducts. There are no air conditioners yet.

An unthinkable developed system of separate sewerage with sedimentation tanks and even ... public toilets. Water supply. Rainwater was drained from the roofs through pottery pipes of a special shape, so that the spray would not fall on passers-by. The walls were plastered, but all that, the decoration, the paint, and the upper floors were gone.

The quality of the masonry is unusually high, includes many tricks (there is no arched vault), and stone slabs for chic. This is the second floor room.

The houses had 2-3 floors, at least 8x9 m, at least one courtyard and wells were required. This is not a tower, this is a well (cistern?) from the second floor.

Hieroglyphs from Harappa

The extinction of civilization occurred, apparently, due to natural causes. Climatic changes or earthquakes could change the course of rivers or dry them up, and soils were depleted. The farmers were no longer able to feed the cities, and the inhabitants left them. The huge socio-economic complex fell apart into small groups. Written language and other cultural achievements were lost. There is nothing to suggest that the decline happened all at once. Instead of empty cities in the north and south, new settlements appeared at this time, people moved east, to the Ganges valley.

The floors of rich houses are also brick, the pools are covered with bitumen. Some floors are covered with an unknown vitreous composition, and under some - channels for air heating

city ​​plan

Ceramics. Mohenjo-Daro. 4500 sun.

Clay seal from Harappa but has not yet been deciphered.

The Indus Valley Civilization was largely an urban culture, trading with the Sumerians from southern Mesopotamia. By far the most exquisite and rare artifact found to date is a small, square-shaped seal engraved with an animal. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, however, and despite the use of computers, the content of the text remains undeciphered. While historians agree that the civilization declined dramatically, there is disagreement over the possible reasons for its end. The conquerors from Central and Western Asia, according to some historians, were the cause of the disappearance of the civilization of the Indus Valley, but this opinion is open to discussion and debate. More plausible explanations are repeated floods caused by the tectonic movement of the earth, soil salinization, desertification.

Bulls harnessed to a cart. Children's toy found in the excavations of the Harappan civilization

Spiral copper wire necklace. There are traces of silk inside. These are the earliest traces of the use of wild silkworm fibers in South Asia. Harappa 3B: circa 2450 - 220 BC

Harappan figurines

Female burial, violated by ancient robbers. A baby is buried under the mother's feet. Harappa is one of the two capitals of an ancient civilization in the Indus River basin.

www.raskopkivostok.mirtesen.ru

Maps of India | India Travel Guide/Journey to India: General Information

1. Geographic (graphic maps) of India

for fans of traditional maps: 1.1. A large tourist map of India showing all major cities and marked with asterisks the most important tourist attractions of interest to travelers. This map will help you understand where are the places you want to go and create an idea of ​​the geography of India

1.2. A detailed geographical map of India indicating, in addition to cities, also meridians, rivers, mountain systems, etc. This map is quite detailed and very large, to view the map click on the preview and it will open in a new window.

2. Interactive travel map of India and Asia

There is an interactive map of India (and Asia too) on Indonesian, which shows all the places mentioned in this guide, as well as stories and other materials written by travelers, with direct links to them from the map. That is, the map itself indicates how many materials in total, by scrolling the map to a city or attraction, you will see the number of posts about this place.

3. Interactive map of India

Unlike graphic and scanned maps, the interactive map of India from maps.google.ru allows, thanks to navigation, to take a look at the whole of India and even find a village, see Indian national highways and local access roads, as well as plans of major Indian cities with street names and hotels. Different flags on this map of India indicate the places for which there is information in the guidebook, the names of the places are naturally in Russian.View See the map of India "India in Russian" on a larger map India map links

indonet.ru

Ancient cities of India - India, culture, cities, description

The ancient cities of India are unique and unrepeatable in their beauty. After all, Indian civilization is one of the oldest in the world. The oldest cities in India known to us are Varanasi, founded, according to the legends of the Indians, by Shiva himself on the banks of the Ganges fifty centuries ago.

City of Kashi-Varnasi The next city is Madurai. It was built around the Meenakshi temple and the temple is right in the middle of it. This temple in the photo:

Another ancient city is Ujjain, here every twelve years the so-called festival of jars - Kumbh Mela is held. Another couple of city attractions are a Shaivist temple and an observatory.

View of the city of Ujjain from the river

Also, the oldest city in India is Patna - a place of pilgrimage for many Indian believers. Patna is a continuously inhabited city, like many other ancient cities in India.

Modern Patna

The city of Pushkar is the smallest city in India, but no less ancient. It is known for its camel fair.

Excavations of the ancient cities of India, location.

The places of the most ancient cities of India are mainly the valleys of the rivers Indus and Ganges. The oldest city in India was excavated by archaeologists in the Mohenjo-Daro area. More than five thousand years ago the city was inhabited. The city had straight streets running from west to east and from north to south. The city had a sewerage system, and the inhabitants also had wells. The buildings were made of brick. residents also had pets. Many tools, as well as ornaments and figurines, were found in the city. Now this territory is uninhabited - Mohenjo-Daro is translated as "hill of death".

Excavations on the Hill of Death

india-online.com

Detailed map of India in Russian. Where is India located on the world map.

India is located in the south of Asia, mostly on the Hindustan peninsula, less on the mainland. India also includes numerous islands located in the east - in the Bay of Bengal, in the south - in the Indian Ocean, in the west - in the Arabian Sea. In the west, India has common borders with Pakistan, with Bhutan, Nepal and China - in the northeast, in the east - with Bangladesh and Myanmar. The disputed territories of the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir have common borders with Afghanistan. The country has maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, in the southeast with Indonesia, in the south with the islands of Sri Lanka.

The country ranks seventh in the world in terms of area. The total area is 3.3 million square kilometers, which includes 90.44% land and 9.56% water surface. India occupies the 2nd place in the world in terms of population - 1.2 billion people live in the state. About 70% of Indians live in rural areas.

The majority of the population of India professes the religion of Hinduism - about 80%, Muslims make up 14% of the total population, Christians - 2.4%, Sikhs - about 2%, Jains and Buddhists - less than 1%. There are also other religions in the country - Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Baha'is.

The official languages ​​of India are English and Hindi. In different states, Tamil, Kannara, Telugu, Bengali, Urdu and others are used as state and other languages. The population of India speaks more than 1600 languages ​​and dialects.

In India, according to the administrative division, Delhi district, six union territories and 28 states are distinguished. All union territories and states are divided into districts, which are divided into tuluks. The largest cities: Mumbai - about 10 million people, New Delhi - about 7 million people, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata) - about 4.5 million people. Major cities are Hyderabad, Madras, Bangapore, each with a population of about 4 million people.

Detailed physical map of India in Russian with major cities.

See where India is located on the world map:

Sorry, the map is temporarily unavailable

webmandry.com

Landmarks of India. Photo and description on Turister.Ru.

India: useful information

Ancient sights of India

The outstanding monuments of Ancient India are the cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, located at a distance of 60 km from each other in the state of Maharashtra. The first temples in Ajanta were carved over several centuries, starting from the 2nd century BC. The cave village of Ellora was created later, but it is just as impressive in its scale: the complex includes 34 caves, and its central structure is the colossal Kailasanath temple. Cave temple complexes, many sculptures, the remains of ancient paintings were also found on Elephanta Island in the Mumbai water area of ​​the Arabian Sea.

Among the main treasures of India, protected by UNESCO, is the Abandoned City of Hampi. It was in these places that some of the events described in the Ramayana developed. The Virupaksha Temple located in Hampi is still active.

In Amritsar, in the center of the artificial lake of the same name, stands the Sikh Golden Temple Harmandir Sahib, which can be reached via a narrow marble bridge.

For many travelers who are imbued with the ideas of Buddhism, ancient temples scattered throughout the country become the strongholds of the journey.

In addition, feel the Indian culture and centuries-old traditions in the Old City of Gokarna, almost entirely consisting of wooden houses, or in Little Tibet, the largest Buddhist community in India.

Panoramic view of the Taj Mahal from Airpano.com

Sights of cities in India

In the capital Delhi, the most interesting are the temples of different religions, the Red Fort and city parks. Here is the Lotus Temple - central to the Baha'i religion, as well as the National Museum, which has collected the largest collection of artifacts in India. More sights of Delhi can be viewed in the thematic section.

The most popular Indian resort state of Goa should not be taken only as a place for a beach holiday. If you wish, you can make a completely varied excursion program, visiting Indian sights: temples, churches and mosques, museums, historical quarters. For example, the Basilica of Jesus in Old Goa, the elegant architectural ensemble of Largo da Igrezha in Panaji, the main temple of Goa - Sri Mangeshi. From resorts close to the beautiful waterfall Dudhsagar - the second largest in India. The best place to walk and buy souvenirs is 18th June Street in Panaji.

Mumbai is the capital of the Indian film industry, home to Bollywood pavilions. The attention of tourists is riveted by a huge triumphal arch - the Gates of India, the fountain of Flora in the ancient Roman style. With guided tours, you can visit the planetarium of the Nehru Scientific and Cultural Center, located in a prominent modern building. The largest exhibition in the city is presented at the Prince of Wales Museum. The best place to relax with children is the huge water park and the Esselworld amusement park.

India's most recognizable architectural landmarks in Jaipur, the "Pink City", are located in the old quarter, where most of the stone houses have a characteristic pink or terracotta hue. The city is home to the majestic palace of the Maharaja, the Albert Hall Museum, originally conceived as the city's assembly hall, and the huge observatory Jantar Mantar. In the suburbs of Jaipur stands the legendary Amber Fort, which now houses a museum and an observation deck.

Famous sights of Kolkata (Kolkata) are the Kali Temple, the largest zoo in India - Alipor, the ancient Indian Museum, where, among other exhibits, ancient fossils and meteorites are stored, the Victoria Memorial and St. Paul's Cathedral.

Video about the sights of India

The ancient city of Lothal, which arose 2400 years ago. BC.

Hampi - the lost capital of the Vijayanagara Empire

In the South Indian state of Karnataka, on the banks of the river with the unpronounceable name Tungabhadra, among the mighty granite boulders, are the ruins of the capital of the once powerful Vijayanagara Empire. The remains of Vijayanagara belong to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, where they are listed as the "Hampi Monuments". It seems that nature itself gave people a scoop and a sandbox to realize their desires and ambitions. Outcrops of gray coarse-grained granite in the heart of the Deccan Plateau, the presence of water arteries and fertile soil have attracted people here since the 1st century AD.

Once upon a time, almost half a million people lived here, and it was one of the largest cities in India.

Various crafts, literature, music and architecture have reached the greatest development here. Countless travelers from all over the world have tried in vain to describe the wonders of Vijayanagara.

A reasonable question arises: "How did the masters cut and process strong and dense granite"? Many pseudo-scientists claim that ancient peoples cut these huge boulders with a laser or incredible space technologies.

A "thousand columns" stretch along the road. Their purpose is not known for certain. It remains to be assumed that earlier there were covered shopping arcades for the city market.

This is a real masterpiece of stone carvers - a granite chariot. Now you can see that there are elephants in the team. However, there used to be horses in their place.

Humpy

Culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

mohenjo-daro

Hercules on the seals of the city

Ware from Mohenjo-Daro

Harappan culture

Priest

On the streets of Mohenjo-Daro

decoration from Mohenjo-Daro

Tools

Table lamp

In all likelihood, the Harappans traded with the Sumerians. In the Sumerian writings, cities were mentioned with which they traded. Among them was a city called Meluke, scientists identify it with the proto-Indian city of Mohenjo - Daro. In large quantities, the remains of cotton fabrics, a variety of faience beads, shells were found on the Harappan territory - all of this was of foreign origin.

Excavation at Mohenjo-Daro

Seals from Mohenjo-Daro

Pottery and textile tools were found among the ruins. Pottery workshops were located throughout the city. Almost everything was made there, from pipes and bricks to thin-walled vessels, elegant figurines and jewelry. Residents also used items made of copper, tin, bronze - these are tools, jewelry and weapons. True, the weapons were made very crudely, probably there were no military operations in this territory. The Harappan people were never able to master the smelting of iron.

Harappan pottery

Harappan game

Pre-Harappan culture

Harappan figurines

Harappan pottery

Terracotta figurines from Harappa

Terracotta

Harappan letter

One or two rooms for ablutions (in a modern way, two bathrooms), ventilation ducts. There are no air conditioners yet.

An unimaginably advanced system separate sewers with septic tanks and even ... public toilets. Water supply. Rainwater was drained from the roofs through pottery pipes of a special shape, so that the spray would not fall on passers-by. The walls were plastered, but all that, the decoration, the paint, and the upper floors were gone.

The quality of the masonry is unusually high, includes many tricks (there is no arched vault), and stone slabs for chic. This is the second floor room.

Harappa

The houses had 2-3 floors, at least 8x9 m, at least one courtyard and wells were required. This is not a tower, this is a well (cistern?) from the second floor.

Harappa

Harappa

Hieroglyphs from Harappa

The extinction of civilization occurred, apparently, due to natural causes. Climatic changes or earthquakes could change the course of rivers or dry them up, and soils were depleted. The farmers were no longer able to feed the cities, and the inhabitants left them. The huge socio-economic complex fell apart into small groups. Written language and other cultural achievements were lost. There is nothing to suggest that the decline happened all at once. Instead of empty cities in the north and south, new settlements appeared at this time, people moved east, to the Ganges valley.

The floors of rich houses are also brick, the pools are covered with bitumen. Some floors are covered with an unknown vitreous composition, and under some - channels for air heating

city ​​plan

Ceramics. Mohenjo-Daro. 4500 sun.

Clay seal from Harappa but has not yet been deciphered.

The Indus Valley Civilization was largely an urban culture, trading with the Sumerians from southern Mesopotamia.
By far the most exquisite and rare artifact found to date is a small, square-shaped seal engraved with an animal. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, however, and despite the use of computers, the content of the text remains undeciphered.
While historians agree that the civilization declined dramatically, there is disagreement over the possible reasons for its end. Conquerors from Central and Western Asia, according to some historians, were the cause of the disappearance Indus Valley Civilizations, but this opinion is open to discussion and debate. More plausible explanations are repeated floods caused by the tectonic movement of the earth, soil salinization, desertification.

Bulls harnessed to a cart. Children's toy found in the excavations of the Harappan civilization

Spiral copper wire necklace. There are traces of silk inside. These are the earliest traces of the use of wild silkworm fibers in South Asia. Harappa 3B: circa 2450 - 220 BC

Harappan figurines

Female burial, violated by ancient robbers. A baby is buried under the mother's feet. Harappa is one of the two capitals of an ancient civilization in the Indus River basin.