What was the name of the first stage of perestroika. Reasons for the failure of perestroika

Perestroika in the USSR: causes, characteristics and results.
Perestroika is a name used to refer to a huge number of reforms in the Soviet Union, primarily in the political, economic and social spheres. Perestroika began during the reign of Gorbachev in the second half of the eighties and lasted until the collapse of the USSR in 1991 year. The date of the beginning of Perestroika is considered to be 1987 the year when this reform program was declared a new state ideology.

Perestroika reasons.
Before the start of Perestroika, the Soviet Union was already experiencing deepest economic crisis,which also joined also political and social crises. The situation in the huge state was very difficult - the people demanded changes. The state demanded cardinal changes in all spheres of life, which only were.

Unrest began in the country after people learned about life abroad. They were in frank shock when they saw that the state in other countries controls all spheres of life of the population: everyone is free to wear whatever they want, listen to any music, eat not according to certain portions, but as far as funds allow and the like.

In addition, the people were very angry because the stores started having problems with essential goods, with various equipment. The state drove the budget into a minus and could no longer produce the required amount of products on time.

In addition, you can add problems with the industry and the agricultural sector: all enterprises have long been outdated, as well as the technology. The manufactured goods were already of such poor quality that no one wanted to buy them. The USSR gradually began to turn into a raw material state. But even in the middle of the century, the Union was one of the most developed countries in the world, with a powerful economy.
IN 1985 year Gorbachev came to power, who emphasized the need for global reforms capable of at least trying to save the country from the collapse that has been brewing for a long time.

All of the above could not remain so for too long, the country demanded changes, and they began. Although it was already too late to change anything, disintegration was still inevitable.

Characteristics.
Gorbachev envisaged measures of complete technological "Rearmament" in all obsolete enterprises, especially in heavy industry. He also planned to seriously enhance the effectiveness of the human factor by making from working specially trained specialists. For enterprises to give even greater profits, they had to begin to be controlled by the state.
What really managed to reform Gorbachev was the sphere of the state's foreign policy. We are talking about relations, first of all, from the USA with which the USSR had a deep economic, political, cultural and ideological confrontation for several decades - the so-called Cold war.

To effectively conduct such a struggle on all fronts, the USSR spent huge amounts of money, only on the maintenance of the army it was required to spend 25% of the entire state budget, and this huge amount of money was very much needed for other needs. Having rid the USSR of such an adversary as the United States, Gorbachev was able to transfer funds to the reorganization of other spheres of state life.

As a result "Politics of peace" with the West relations between the two states began to improve and the two peoples stopped looking at each other as an enemy.

Returning to the deep economic crisis, it should be noted that the Soviet leadership did not fully realize how deep it was - the situation was really catastrophic. Unemployment began to rise in the country and, in addition, among the male population began to spread drunkenness global scale. The state tried in every possible way to combat drunkenness and unemployment, but there were no particular successes from this.

The Communist Party was losing its influence and authority among the people with every new day. Liberal views began to actively emerge, which were eager to completely dare the power and rebuild the state according to a new type, because such communism was simply not feasible.

To calm the population a little, there was every citizen is allowed to talk about his political views, although earlier it was disastrously forbidden - for this under Stalin they could not just put in the Gulag, but shoot. Previously inaccessible literature has now become publicly available - books by foreign authors, previously banned by the party, have begun to be imported into the country.

In the early stages, changes in the economy took place with little success, the country really began to produce more high-quality products, but by 1988 year this policy has exhausted itself. Then it became clear that nothing could be changed, the collapse of communism was inevitable and the USSR would soon cease to exist.

Results of Perestroika.
Despite the fact that Perestroika was not able to change the situation in the Union so that it continued to exist, a number of important changes did take place and they should be noted.
The victims of Stalinism were fully rehabilitated;
Freedom of speech and political views appeared in the country, severe censorship was removed, including on literature;
The one-party system was dropped;
Now you can freely leave / enter from / to the country;
Students no longer serve in the army while they are in training;
Women were no longer imprisoned for cheating on their husbands;
The state gave permission to rock in the country;
The Cold War has ended.

These were positive results of Perestroika, but there were much more negative results. Among the most important are the economic ones.
The gold and foreign exchange reserves of the USSR decreased by about 10 times, which led to such a phenomenon as hyperinflation;
The USSR's international debt has grown at least threefold;
The pace of economic development dropped to almost zero - the country simply froze.

After Chernenko's death in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. By that time, the USSR was already on the brink of a deep crisis, both in the economy and in the social sphere. The efficiency of social production was steadily declining, and the arms race was a heavy burden on the country's economy. In fact, all spheres of society were in need of renewal. The difficult situation of the USSR was the reason for perestroika, as well as changes in the country's foreign policy. Modern historians distinguish the following stages of perestroika:

• 1985 - 1986
• 1987 - 1988
• 1989 - 1991

During the beginning of perestroika from 1985 to 1986. there were no significant changes in the organization of the country's governance. In the regions, power, at least formally, belonged to the Soviets, and at the highest level - to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. But, during this period, statements about publicity and the fight against bureaucracy were already heard. The process of rethinking international relations gradually began. Tension in relations between the USSR and the United States has significantly decreased.

Large-scale changes began somewhat later - from the end of 1987. This period is characterized by an unprecedented freedom of creativity, the development of art. Author's publicistic programs go out on television, magazines publish materials promoting the ideas of reforms. At the same time, the political struggle is clearly intensifying. Serious transformations begin in the sphere of state power. So, in December 1988, at the 11th extraordinary session of the Supreme Soviet, the law "On amendments and additions to the Constitution" was adopted. The law made changes to the electoral system, introducing the principle of alternativeness.

However, the third period of perestroika in the USSR turned out to be the most turbulent. In 1989, Soviet troops were completely withdrawn from Afghanistan. In fact, the USSR ceases to support socialist regimes on the territory of other states. The camp of the socialist countries is crumbling. The most important and significant event of that period was the fall of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany.

The party is gradually losing its real power and its unity. A fierce struggle between the factions begins. Not only the current situation in the USSR is criticized, but also the very foundations of the ideology of Marxism, as well as the October Revolution of 1917. Many opposition parties and movements are being formed.

Against the backdrop of a tough political struggle during this period of Gorbachev's perestroika, a split also begins in the sphere of the intelligentsia, among art workers. While some of them were critical of the processes taking place in the country, the other part provides all-round support to Gorbachev. Against the background of political and social freedom unprecedented at that time, the volumes of funding, both art and science, education, and many industries, are significantly reduced. Talented scientists in such conditions go to work abroad, or turn into businessmen. Many research institutes and design bureaus cease to exist. The development of knowledge-intensive industries slows down, and later completely stops. Perhaps the clearest example of this can be the Energia-Buran project, within the framework of which the unique space shuttle Buran was created, which made a single flight.

The material situation of the majority of citizens is gradually deteriorating. Also, there is an aggravation of interethnic relations. Many cultural and political figures are beginning to say that perestroika has outlived its usefulness.

The consequences of perestroika are extremely ambiguous and multifaceted. Undoubtedly, the receipt by society of social and political freedoms, transparency and reform of the planned distribution economy are positive aspects. However, the processes that took place during perestroika in the USSR in 1985 - 1991 led to the collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of interethnic conflicts that had been smoldering for a long time. The weakening of power, both in the center and in the localities, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, the undermining of the scientific base, and so on. Undoubtedly, the results of perestroika and its meaning will be rethought by future generations more than once.

Perestroika (1985-1991) in the USSR was a large-scale phenomenon in the political, economic and state. Some people believe that its implementation was an attempt to prevent the collapse of the country, while others, on the contrary, think that it pushed the Union to collapse. Let's find out what perestroika was like in the USSR (1985-1991). Let us briefly try to characterize its causes and consequences.

Background

So, how did perestroika in the USSR begin (1985-1991)? We will study the causes, stages and consequences a little later. Now we will dwell on the processes that preceded this period in Russian history.

Like almost all phenomena in our life, perestroika 1985-1991 in the USSR has its own prehistory. The indicators of the well-being of the population in the 70s of the last century reached an unprecedented level in the country until then. At the same time, it should be noted that a significant decrease in the rate of economic growth belongs precisely to this period of time, for which in the future this entire period, with the light hand of M. S. Gorbachev, was called the "era of stagnation."

Another negative phenomenon was a fairly frequent shortage of goods, the reason for which researchers call the shortcomings of the planned economy.

Oil and gas exports helped to offset the slowdown in industrial development. It was at that time that the USSR became one of the world's largest exporters of these natural resources, which was facilitated by the development of new deposits. At the same time, the increase in the share of oil and gas in the country's GDP made the economic indicators of the USSR significantly dependent on world prices for these resources.

But the very high cost of oil (due to the embargo of Arab states on the supply of "black gold" to Western countries) helped to smooth out most of the negative phenomena in the USSR economy. The well-being of the country's population was constantly improving, and most ordinary citizens could not even imagine that soon everything could change. And it's so cool ...

At the same time, the country's leadership, headed by Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev, could not or did not want to fundamentally change something in the management of the economy. High rates only covered up the abscess of economic problems that had accumulated in the USSR, which threatened to break through at any moment, if only external or internal conditions changed.

It was the change in these conditions that led to the process that is now known as Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991.

Operation in Afghanistan and sanctions against the USSR

In 1979, the USSR began a military operation in Afghanistan, which was officially presented as international assistance to the fraternal people. The introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan was not approved by the UN Security Council, which served as a pretext for the United States to apply a number of economic measures against the Union, which were of a sanction nature, and to persuade Western European countries to support some of them.

True, despite all efforts, the United States government did not succeed in getting the European states to freeze the construction of the large-scale Urengoy-Uzhgorod gas pipeline. But even those sanctions that were introduced could cause significant damage to the economy of the USSR. And the war in Afghanistan itself also required considerable material costs, and also contributed to an increase in the level of discontent among the population.

It was these events that became the first harbingers of the economic collapse of the USSR, but only war and sanctions were clearly not enough to see the entire fragility of the economic basis of the Land of the Soviets.

Falling oil prices

As long as the price of oil was kept at around $ 100 per barrel, the Soviet Union could not pay much attention to the sanctions of Western states. Since the 1980s, there has been a significant recession in the global economy, which contributed to a drop in oil prices due to a decrease in demand. In addition, in 1983, they abandoned fixed prices for this resource, and Saudi Arabia significantly increased the volume of raw materials production. This only contributed to the further continuation of the collapse of prices for "black gold". If in 1979 they asked for $ 104 per barrel of oil, then in 1986 these figures fell to $ 30, that is, the cost dropped almost 3.5 times.

This could not have a positive effect on the economy of the USSR, which, back in the Brezhnev era, fell into a significant dependence on oil exports. Together with the sanctions of the United States and other Western countries, as well as with the flaws of an ineffective management system, a sharp drop in the cost of "black gold" could lead to the collapse of the entire economy of the country.

The new leadership of the USSR, headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, who became the leader of the state in 1985, understood that it was necessary to significantly change the structure of economic management, as well as carry out reforms in all spheres of the country's life. It was the attempt to introduce these reforms that led to the emergence of such a phenomenon as perestroika (1985-1991) in the USSR.

Reasons for restructuring

What exactly were the reasons for perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)? We will briefly dwell on them below.

The main reason that prompted the country's leadership to think about the need for significant changes - both in the economy and in the socio-political structure as a whole - was the understanding that under the current conditions the country is threatened with an economic collapse or, at best, a significant decline in all respects. Naturally, no one among the country's leaders even thought about the reality of the collapse of the USSR in 1985.

The main factors that served as an impetus for understanding the full depth of urgent economic, managerial and social problems were:

1. Military operation in Afghanistan.
2. The introduction of sanctions against the USSR.
3. Falling oil prices.
4. Imperfection of the management system.

These were the main reasons for Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991.

Start of restructuring

How did perestroika in 1985-1991 begin in the USSR?

As mentioned above, initially few people thought that the negative factors that existed in the economy and social life of the USSR could really lead to the collapse of the country, therefore, initially perestroika was planned as a correction of certain shortcomings of the system.

The beginning of perestroika can be considered March 1985, when the party leadership elected a relatively young and promising member of the Politburo, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, as the General Secretary of the CPSU. At that time he was 54 years old, which for many may not seem so little, but in comparison with the previous leaders of the country, he was really young. So, Leonid Brezhnev became the secretary general at the age of 59 and held this post until his death, which overtook him at the age of 75. After him, Y. Andropov and K. Chernenko, who actually occupied the most important state post in the country, became general secretaries at 68 and 73, respectively, but were able to live only a little more than a year each after coming to power.

This state of affairs indicated a significant stagnation of cadres in the higher echelons of the party. The appointment of such a relatively young and new person in the party leadership as Mikhail Gorbachev as General Secretary should have influenced to some extent the solution of this problem.

Gorbachev immediately made it clear that he was going to carry out a number of changes in various spheres of activity in the country. True, at that time it was not yet clear how far all this would go.

In April 1985, the Secretary General announced the need to accelerate the economic development of the USSR. It was precisely the term “acceleration” that was most often called the first stage of perestroika, which lasted until 1987 and did not imply fundamental changes in the system. Its tasks included only the introduction of some administrative reforms. Also, the acceleration presupposed an increase in the rate of development of mechanical engineering and heavy industry. But in the end, the government's actions did not give the desired result.

In May 1985, Gorbachev announced that it was time for everyone to rebuild. It is from this statement that the term "perestroika" originated, but its introduction into widespread use refers to a later period.

I stage of restructuring

The first stage of perestroika, which was also called "acceleration", can be considered the time from 1985 to 1987. As mentioned above, all innovations at that time were mainly of an administrative nature. At the same time, in 1985, an anti-alcohol campaign was launched, the purpose of which was to reduce the level of alcoholism in the country, which had reached a critical level. But in the course of this campaign, a number of unpopular measures were taken that can be considered "excesses". In particular, a huge number of vineyards were destroyed, and a de facto ban on the presence of alcoholic beverages at family and other celebrations held by party members was introduced. In addition, the anti-alcohol campaign has led to a shortage of alcoholic drinks in stores and a significant increase in their cost.

At the first stage, the fight against corruption and unearned income of citizens was also declared. The positive aspects of this period include a significant infusion of new cadres into the party leadership who wished to carry out really significant reforms. Among these people can be distinguished B. Yeltsin and

The Chernobyl tragedy, which occurred in 1986, demonstrated the inability of the existing system not only to prevent a catastrophe, but also to effectively deal with its consequences. The emergency situation at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant was hidden for several days by the authorities, which endangered millions of people living near the disaster zone. This indicated that the country's leadership was acting by old methods, which, naturally, did not like the population.

In addition, the reforms carried out so far proved to be ineffective, as economic indicators continued to fall, and public discontent with the policies of the leadership grew more and more. This fact contributed to the realization by Gorbachev and some other representatives of the party elite of the fact that half measures cannot be avoided, but cardinal reforms must be carried out in order to save the situation.

Perestroika goals

The state of affairs described above contributed to the fact that the country's leadership was not immediately able to determine the specific goals of perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991). The table below summarizes them.

The main goal that faced the USSR during the years of perestroika in 1985-1991 was the creation of an efficient mechanism for governing the state through systemic reforms.

II stage

It was the tasks described above that were basic for the leadership of the USSR during the perestroika period 1985-1991. at the second stage of this process, the beginning of which can be considered 1987.

It was at this time that censorship was significantly softened, which was expressed in the so-called policy of openness. It provided for the admissibility of discussion in society of topics that were previously either hushed up or were prohibited. was a significant step towards the democratization of the system, but at the same time had a number of negative consequences. The flow of open information, to which the society, which was behind the Iron Curtain for decades, was simply not ready, contributed to a radical revision of the ideals of communism, ideological and moral decay, the emergence of nationalist and separatist sentiments in the country. In particular, in 1988, an interethnic armed conflict began in Nagorno-Karabakh.

It was also allowed to conduct certain types of individual entrepreneurial activities, in particular, in the form of cooperatives.

In foreign policy, the USSR made significant concessions to the United States in the hope of lifting the sanctions. Gorbachev's meetings with US President Reagan were quite frequent, during which agreements on disarmament were reached. In 1989, Soviet troops were finally withdrawn from Afghanistan.

But it should be noted that at the second stage of perestroika, the assigned tasks of building democratic socialism were not achieved.

Restructuring at stage III

The third stage of perestroika, which began in the second half of 1989, was marked by the fact that the processes taking place in the country began to get out of the control of the central government. Now she was only forced to adapt to them.

Throughout the country, the Republican authorities proclaimed the priority of local laws and regulations over the all-Union ones, if they were in conflict with each other. And in March 1990, Lithuania announced its secession from the Soviet Union.

In 1990, the presidential post was introduced, to which the deputies elected Mikhail Gorbachev. In the future, it was planned to conduct the election of the president by direct popular vote.

At the same time, it became clear that the former format of relations between the republics of the USSR could no longer be maintained. It was planned to reorganize it into a "soft federation" under the name of the year, whose supporters wanted the preservation of the old system, put an end to this idea.

Post-restructuring

After the suppression of the putsch, most of the republics of the USSR announced their secession and proclaimed independence. And what is the result? What has perestroika led to? passed in unsuccessful efforts to stabilize the situation in the country. In the fall of 1991, an attempt was made to transform the former superpower into a confederation of the JIT, which ended in failure.

The main task at the fourth stage of perestroika, which is also called post-perestroika, was the liquidation of the USSR and the formalization of relations between the republics of the former Union. This goal was actually achieved in Belovezhskaya Pushcha at a meeting of the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Later, the majority of other republics joined the Belovezhskaya agreements.

By the end of 1991, the USSR had even formally ceased to exist.

Outcome

We studied the processes that took place in the USSR during the period of perestroika (1985-1991), briefly dwelt on the reasons and stages of this phenomenon. Now is the time to talk about the results.

First of all, it must be said about the collapse that perestroika suffered in the USSR (1985-1991). The results both for the ruling circles and for the country as a whole were disappointing. The country split into a number of independent states, in some of them armed conflicts broke out, a catastrophic decline in economic indicators occurred, the communist idea was completely discredited, and the CPSU was liquidated.

The main goals set by perestroika were never achieved. On the contrary, the situation has worsened even more. The only positive moments can be seen only in the democratization of society and in the emergence of market relations. During the perestroika period of 1985-1991, the USSR was a state that was unable to withstand external and internal challenges.

Perestroika in the USSR changed many of the fate of Russians. Someone speaks of the events of this time as inevitable. Someone thinks that nothing had to be rebuilt.

The perestroika events took place under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev, who became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1985.

Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

At the April 1985 plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, an announcement was made about the beginning of perestroika, the first stages of which sounded like "acceleration and perestroika."

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev (born 1931) - the last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee (1985-1991). The last Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1988-1989), then the first chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1989-1990). The first and only president of the USSR (1990-1991).

The term "acceleration" meant economic growth. The meaning of this process consisted in doubling the entire national economy of the USSR within 15 years. This term was quickly forgotten, and everything that happened in the country began to be called "perestroika".

The period of history called perestroika was characterized by major transformations that changed Soviet society and led to the collapse of the USSR.

Prerequisites and Causes

The pre-perestroika period is defined as the "era of stagnation", the consequences of which led to the abandonment of the socialist path.

The prerequisites for perestroika were:

1. Economic forcescharacterized by a decrease in the growth of agriculture and industry; a drop in labor productivity; the collapse of the financial system; shortage of goods and the introduction of cards; scientific and technical lagging behind resource-saving technologies and industries; an increase in external debt.
2. Social factors - a decline in the living standards of citizens and an increase in the dissident movement.
3. Political factors, including corruption, criminalization of the economy, the growth of national contradictions.
4. Foreign policy factors reflected in the weakening of the international status of the USSR, in the isolation of the country due to the events in Afghanistan and the aggravation of the "cold war".

The main reason for perestroika was the crisis state of the country's economic development, which was caused by many other factors. One of them is gerontocracy, the concentration of power in the hands of elderly leaders.

The purpose of Gorbachev's perestroika

The objectives of the proclamation of the transition to the new policy were:

• recovery of the country's economy;
• rejuvenation of the composition of the highest authorities;
• regulation of foreign policy.

At the same time, the team of organizers of perestroika did not seek to turn the country onto the capitalist path; they sought to improve socialism.

The events that took place during the years of perestroika are presented in a chronological table.

Reforms and laws of restructuring of the USSR

Political perestroika reforms include:

• a decree indicating the renewal of cadres concerning the leaders of the upper echelons of power;
• amnesty for political prisoners;
• the Law on Press and Mass Media, which proclaimed the policy of publicity;
• a change in the Constitution, introducing a two-tier system of power legislative bodies;
• the introduction of the highest post of the Soviet Union - the president.

Famous economists Abalkin, Zaslavskaya and Aganbegyan developed a project to implement economic reforms, requiring new laws.

It was supposed to get out of the economic crisis in Russia through the adoption of:

• the law on economic activity at state enterprises, providing for the vesting of their rights, but the ministries did not allow them to operate independently;
• laws on private activities that allowed free entrepreneurs to emerge, but the private sector and cooperatives were heavily taxed;
• regulations reflecting the sharp transition of enterprises to a market economy.

A group of scientists, headed by Academician Shatalin and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers Yavlinsky, developed a project that allows the transition to a market economy within 500 days. The main content of the project included:

• the ability to privatize state-owned industrial and commercial enterprises;
• the launch of inflation processes and the emergence of unemployment;
• uncontrolled rise in prices.

The plan was not approved by Gorbachev.

Perestroika results - achievements and mistakes

If we talk briefly about the reasons for the failure of perestroika, the following facts should be noted:

1. Reforms on agricultural development began too late, were half-hearted and did not solve the food problem in the country.
2. Industrial production was reduced and sometimes closed.
3. The failure of reforms in lending, centralization of the supply system and pricing policy further worsened the economic situation.
4. The emergence of the financial crisis was characterized by inflation - up to 30% monthly, an increase in foreign debts - up to $ 60 billion, depletion of foreign exchange reserves and the State Bank's gold reserves.
5. A free path was opened for the "black" market, and the shortage of goods became universal.

Speaking about the historical significance of perestroika, its pros and cons, it should be noted negative totals, characterized by:

• the collapse of the USSR;
• interethnic conflicts;
• economic crisis;
• falling living standards of the population;
• the growth of social tension;
• the weakening of the country's international positions;
• decrease in defenses.

Positive results include:

• gaining independence;
• the emergence of conditions for the exchange of a totalitarian regime for a democratic one, and the introduction of a market economy instead of an administrative economy;
• creation of favorable conditions in foreign policy, leading to the strengthening of peace with other states and the end of the "cold war".

The intentions of the Gorbachev team to bring the country to a new level due to gross miscalculations led to the collapse of the country and a change in the fate of millions of Russian citizens.

Faculty of Economics
Specialty: "Organization Management"
Department of Philosophy and History

EXTERNAT

abstract

By discipline: Russian history
On the topic: "Perestroika" and its consequences

Performed by S.L. Borisova
Code 110133

Vologda - Dairy
2011
Content

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… ... 3
1. Restructuring: stages and consequences …………………………… ……………… 4
1.1. Reasons for restructuring ……………………………………………… …… 4
1.2. Goals of perestroika ……………………………………………………………… 6
1.3. Major reforms ………………………………………………………… 7
1.4. Results of perestroika ……………………………………………… …… ... 10
2. The collapse of the USSR. CIS Education and Development ………… …………………… ..12
3. Assessment of M.S. Gorbachev's activity ……………………………………… .. 16
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… .20
List of literature sources ………………………………………… ... 22

Introduction

Perestroika is a very high-profile period in the history of the USSR. The policy of perestroika, initiated by a part of the leadership of the CPSU headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole. During perestroika, problems that had been accumulating for decades were exposed, especially in the economy and the international sphere. To all this were added the mistakes and miscalculations made in the process of carrying out the reforms themselves. The political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development, parties and movements that connect the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on the future appearance of the Soviet Union, relations between the Union and republican bodies of state power and administration, has sharply escalated. By the early 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society and to the further disintegration of the USSR. The attitude of people to this historical stage is ambiguous. Some believe that perestroika is a way out of a difficult situation of stagnation, that changes were necessary, bad, good, but it was necessary to change the system, its structure and that changes could not be made due to the complex general state of affairs in international politics and on “internal fronts ". Another opinion on this matter is that perestroika is the destruction of the Soviet Union and nothing more than that the leaders were driven by simple selfish considerations, and through all the talk about the ineffectiveness of socialism these selfish considerations were quite clearly visible. The initiators of perestroika wanted to put money in their pockets.

1. Restructuring: stages and consequences
1.1. Reasons for restructuring

By the early 1980s, the Soviet economic system had exhausted its potential for development and had gone beyond the boundaries of its historical time. Having carried out industrialization and urbanization, the command economy was unable to further carry out profound transformations covering all aspects of society. First of all, it turned out to be incapable in the radically changed conditions to ensure the proper development of the productive forces, to protect human rights, and to maintain the country's international authority. The USSR, with its huge reserves of raw materials, hardworking and selfless population, lagged more and more behind the West. The Soviet economy was unable to cope with the increasing demands for the variety and quality of consumer goods. Industrial enterprises not interested in scientific and technological progress rejected up to 80% of new technical solutions and inventions. The growing inefficiency of the economy negatively affected the country's defense capability. In the early 1980s, the USSR began to lose its competitiveness in the only industry in which it successfully competed with the West - in the field of military technology.
The country's economic base no longer corresponded to the position of a great world power and was in urgent need of renewal. At the same time, the tremendous growth in education and awareness of the people during the post-war period, the emergence of a generation that did not know hunger and repression, formed a higher level of material and spiritual needs of people, called into question the very principles underlying the Soviet totalitarian system. The very idea of \u200b\u200ba planned economy has failed. More and more often, state plans were not fulfilled and were continuously redrawn, proportions in the sectors of the national economy were violated. Achievements in the field of health care, education, culture were lost.
The spontaneous degeneration of the system changed the entire way of life of Soviet society: the rights of managers and enterprises were redistributed, departmentalism and social inequality increased.
The nature of production relations within enterprises changed, labor discipline began to fall, apathy and indifference, theft, disrespect for honest work, envy of those who earn more became widespread. At the same time, non-economic compulsion to work persisted in the country. The Soviet person, alienated from the distribution of the produced product, turned into a performer who works not according to conscience, but under compulsion. The ideological motivation for labor developed in the post-revolutionary years was weakening along with the belief in the imminent triumph of communist ideals. However, ultimately, completely different forces determined the direction and nature of the reform of the Soviet system. They were predetermined by the economic interests of the nomenklatura, the Soviet ruling class.
Thus, by the beginning of the 1980s, the Soviet totalitarian system was actually losing the support of a significant part of society.
Under the conditions of monopoly domination of one party in society, the CPSU, and the presence of a powerful repressive apparatus, changes could only begin "from above". The country's top leaders were clearly aware that the economy needed reform, but none of the conservative majority of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee wanted to take responsibility for implementing these changes.
Even the most pressing problems were not resolved in time. Instead of taking any measures to improve the economy, new forms of "socialist competition" were proposed. Huge funds were diverted to numerous "construction projects of the century" like the Baikal-Amur Mainline.
In the early 1980s, all strata of Soviet society, without exception, experienced psychological discomfort. An understanding of the need for profound changes was ripening in the public consciousness, but the interest in them was different. The larger and more informed Soviet intelligentsia found it increasingly difficult to put up with the suppression of the free development of culture and the country's isolation from the outside civilized world. She was acutely aware of the perniciousness of the nuclear confrontation with the West and the consequences of the Afghan war. The intelligentsia wanted true democracy and individual freedom.
Most workers and employees associated the need for changes with better organization and wages, a more equitable distribution of social wealth. Part of the peasantry hoped to become the true owners of their land and their labor. Rally in Moscow at Manezhnaya Square. In the late 1980s - early 1990s, thousands of rallies were held in many cities of the USSR demanding reforms. In the late 1980s - early 1990s, thousands of rallies were held in many cities of the USSR demanding reforms.
Changes awaited a powerful layer of party and government officials, the military, concerned about the collapse of the state.
In their own way, technocrats and intellectuals were interested in reforming the Soviet system. The coincidence in time of internal and external factors required a radical change in the conditions of production and methods of management. Every day it became obvious: for change, a renewal of the country's leadership is necessary.
Perestroika was proclaimed by the new General Secretary, 54-year-old M.S.Gorbachev, who took over the baton of power after the death of K.U. Chernenko in March 1985. Elegantly dressed, speaking “without a piece of paper,” the secretary general gained popularity with his external democracy and desire for transformations in a “stagnant” country and, of course, promises (for example, each family was promised a separate comfortable apartment by 2000).
No one since the time of Khrushchev has communicated with the people like that: Gorbachev traveled around the country, easily went out to people, in an informal setting he talked with workers, collective farmers, and the intelligentsia. With the arrival of a new leader, inspired by plans for a breakthrough in the economy and restructuring the entire life of society, hopes and enthusiasm revived in people.
A course was proclaimed to "accelerate" the country's socio-economic development. With the election of Gorbachev to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, the vicious tradition of recent years was finally interrupted. M.S. Gorbachev was elected because the ruling elite could not but reckon with public opinion, not officially recognized, but real.
1.2. Perestroika goals
The basis of economic programs was the acceleration strategy, that is, the use of all reserves to increase labor productivity. It was supposed to concentrate resources for the modernization of production, significantly expand the production of machinery and equipment. However, there was no talk of creating new economic incentives to improve the performance of enterprises. It was planned to achieve the set goals by tightening labor discipline, increasing the responsibility of enterprise managers for business violations. A system of state acceptance was introduced - non-departmental control over the quality of products. Born in 1931, Mikhail S. Gorbachev belonged to a generation that called themselves the "Children of the 20th Congress." An educated man and an experienced party worker, Gorbachev continued the analysis of the state of the country, begun by Andropov, and the search for ways out of this situation.
Various reform options were discussed both in scientific circles and in the bowels of the party apparatus. However, by 1985 an integral concept of restructuring the economy had not yet taken shape. Most scientists and politicians were looking for a way out within the framework of the existing system: in transferring the national economy to the path of intensification, creating conditions for the implementation of the achievements of scientific and technological revolution. This point of view was also shared by M.S. Gorbachev.
Thus, in order to strengthen the country's position in the international arena, to improve the living conditions of the population, the country really needed an intensive highly developed economy. Already the first speeches of the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU showed his determination to start renewing the country.

1.3. Major reforms
Anti-alcohol reform
The initial stage of the new leadership of the country, headed by M.S. Gorbachev is characterized by an attempt to modernize socialism, to abandon not the system, but its most ridiculous and cruel aspects. It was about accelerating the country's socio-economic development. At this time, the concept of restructuring the economic mechanism was put forward, which consisted in expanding the rights of enterprises, their independence, introducing cost accounting, and increasing the interest of labor collectives in the end result of their labor. In order to improve the quality of the products, state acceptance was introduced. Election of the heads of enterprises began to be held.
The initial idea of \u200b\u200bthe reform was very positive - to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed per capita in the country, to begin a fight against drunkenness. But as a result of too radical actions, Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign and the subsequent abandonment of the state monopoly led to the fact that most of the income went to the shadow sector.
In the 90s, a lot of start-up capital was amassed by private traders on "drunken" money. The treasury was rapidly emptied. The cutting down of the most valuable vineyards took place, as a result of this the disappearance of entire sectors of industry in some republics of the USSR, for example, in Georgia. The growth of drug addiction, substance abuse and home brewing, as well as multibillion-dollar budget losses.
Personnel reforms in the government
In October 1985, N.I. was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Ryzhkov. In December 1985, BN became the secretary of the Moscow city party committee. Yeltsin. E.A. Gromyko became Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Gromyko. Shevardnadze. A.N. were promoted to the highest party hierarchy. Yakovlev and A.I. Lukyanov. In fact, 90% of the old Brezhnev apparatus was replaced by new personnel. Almost the entire composition of the Presidium of the USSR Council of Ministers has changed. Social and social reforms
At this time, the general democratization of life in the country began. The political persecution has stopped. The oppression of censorship is weakened. Such prominent people as Sakharov, Marchenko, etc., returned from prisons and exile. The glasnost policy launched by the new Soviet leadership dramatically changed the spiritual life of people. Interest in print media, radio and television has grown. In 1986 alone, newspapers and magazines acquired more than 14 million new readers. The glasnost policy paved the way for genuine freedom of speech, press, thought, which became possible only after the collapse of the communist regime. The process of democratization has embraced Soviet society. In the ideological sphere, Gorbachev put forward the slogan of publicity. This meant that no events of the past and present should be hidden from the people. Glasnost is the key word of perestroika, it allowed the dumb masses to say whatever they wanted, criticize anyone, including and especially Gorbachev himself - the man who gave them free rein. Foreign policy reforms
During the meeting, M.S. Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan in November 1985, the parties recognized the need to improve Soviet-American relations and improve the international situation as a whole. START-1, 2 treaties were signed. By a statement dated January 15, 1986 M.S. Gorbachev put forward a number of major foreign policy initiatives:
Complete elimination of nuclear and chemical weapons by 2000.
Strict control over the storage of nuclear weapons and their destruction at the disposal sites.
The USSR refused to confront the West and offered to end the Cold War. In 1990, Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize for his contribution to easing international tension. During his visit to India, the Delhi Declaration was signed on the principles of a nuclear-free and non-violent world. Reforms of the political system of the USSR
The struggle for political reform and the methods of its implementation unfolded at the 19th All-Union Party Conference in the summer of 1988. By this time, opponents of perestroika had become more active. Back in March 1988, in the newspaper of the Central Committee of the CPSU "Soviet Russia", an article by a teacher of one of the Leningrad universities, Nina Andreeva, "I cannot give up my principles," directed against democratic reforms, calling back to
Lenin and Stalin. At the congress there were also attempts by the conservatives to change the opinion of the majority of the delegates in their favor, but they led nowhere. On December 1, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted 2 laws “On amendments and additions to the Constitution of the USSR” and “On the election of people's deputies of the USSR”. According to the first of them, the highest authority becomes
Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, consisting of 2,250 deputies. The meeting was to be held once a year. It elected the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The second law determined the procedure for the election of USSR People's Deputies. The new laws had many flaws, but were a significant step forward towards liberation from totalitarianism and the one-party system. On March 26, 1989, elections of People's Deputies of the USSR were held. In May - June 1989, the 1st Congress of People's Deputies began its work. It includes the Interregional Deputy Group (Sakharov, Sobchak, Afanasiev, Popov, Starovoitova), the Union Deputy Group (Blokhin, Kogan, Petrushenko, Alksnis), the Life Deputy Group and others. The final stage in the sphere of reforms of the political system can be called the III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, at which Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR, and some amendments were made to the Constitution. Economic reform
By the middle of 1990. the Soviet leadership decided to introduce private ownership of the means of production. The dismantling of the foundations of socialism began. The President was offered several economic programs for the transition to a market economy. The most famous of them was the program called "500 days", created under the leadership of the young scientist G. Yavlinsky. The government of the USSR also proposed its program. The programs differed mainly in the degree of radicalization and determination. 500 days were aimed at a quick and decisive transition to the market, the bold introduction of various forms of ownership. The government program, without denying the need for a transition to market relations, sought to prolong this process for a long time, to leave a significant state sector in the economy, all-pervading control over it by the central bureaucratic bodies.
The President gave preference to the government program. Its implementation began in January 1991 with the exchange of 50 and 100 ruble bills in order to seize money acquired from the point of view of the authorities illegally, as well as to reduce the pressure of the money supply on the consumer market. The exchange took place on a tight schedule. Huge long queues lined up in the savings banks. People had to prove the legitimacy of their savings. Instead of the planned 20 billion rubles, the government received only 10 billion rubles from this operation. On April 2, 1991, prices for food products, transport, and utilities were increased 2-4 times. There was a drop in the living standards of the population. According to the UN, by mid-1991 the USSR was ranked 82nd in the world for this indicator. The official decision of the Soviet leadership to transition to a market economy allowed the most enterprising and energetic people to create the country's first legal private business firms, trade and commodity exchanges. A layer of entrepreneurs appeared and began to be implemented in the country, although the existing laws did not allow them to develop their activities for the production of goods. The bulk of private capital was used in trade and money circulation. The privatization process of enterprises was extremely slow. On top of that, there was the emergence of unemployment, crime, racketeering. By the end of 1991, the economy of the USSR was in a catastrophic state. The decline in production accelerated. Compared to 1990, the national income has decreased by 20%. The state budget deficit, that is, the excess of government spending over revenues, was, according to various estimates, from 20% to 30% of the gross domestic product (GDP). The growth of the money supply in the country threatened with the loss of state control over the financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy. Economic failures increasingly undermined the positions of the communist reformers, headed by Gorbachev.
It can be concluded that as a result of his reforms, the world has changed dramatically and will never be the same again. It is impossible to do this without the courage and political will. There are many ways to treat Mikhail Gorbachev, but there is no doubt that he is one of the greatest figures in history.

1.4. Perestroika results
During the years of "perestroika" surprisingly little has been done to realistically reform the economic mechanism. The laws adopted by the union leadership expanded the rights of enterprises, allowed small-scale private and cooperative entrepreneurship, but did not affect the fundamental foundations of the command-distribution economy. The paralysis of the central government and, as a consequence, the weakening of state control over the national economy, the progressed disintegration of production ties between enterprises of different Union republics, the increased autocracy of directors, a short-sighted policy of artificial growth of incomes of the population, like other populist measures in the economy - all this led to an increase in during 1990 - 1991 economic crisis in the country. The destruction of the old economic system was not accompanied by the emergence of a new one in its place. This task was to be solved by the new Russia.
It was necessary to continue the process of forming a free democratic society, which had been successfully started by "perestroika". The country already had real freedom of speech, which grew out of the policy of "glasnost", a multi-party system was taking shape, elections were held on an alternative (from several candidates) basis, and a formally independent press appeared. But the advantageous position of one party, the CPSU, remained, which actually merged with the state apparatus. The Soviet form of organization of state power did not provide for the generally recognized division of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches. It was necessary to reform the state-political system of the country, which was quite within the power of the new Russian leadership.
By the end of 1991, the economy of the USSR was in a catastrophic state. The decline in production accelerated. Compared to 1990, the national income has decreased by 20%. The state budget deficit, that is, the excess of government spending over revenues, was, according to various estimates, from 20% to 30% of the gross domestic product (GDP). The growth of the money supply in the country threatened the loss of state control over the financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy.
The accelerated growth of wages and benefits, which began in 1989, increased the pent-up demand; by the end of the year, most goods had disappeared from state trade, but were sold at exorbitant prices in commercial stores and on the black market. During the period from 1985 to 1991, retail prices almost tripled, government price control could not stop inflation. Unexpected interruptions in the supply of various consumer goods to the population caused "crises" (tobacco, sugar, vodka) and huge queues. A normalized distribution of many products (by coupons) was introduced. People feared possible hunger.
Serious doubts have arisen among Western creditors about the solvency of the USSR. The total external debt of the Soviet Union by the end of 1991 amounted to more than $ 100 billion, taking into account mutual debts, the net debt of the USSR in convertible currency in real terms was estimated at about $ 60 billion. Until 1989, 25-30% of the amount of Soviet exports in convertible currency was spent on servicing external debt (paying off interest, etc.), but then, due to a sharp drop in oil exports, the Soviet Union had to sell gold reserves to acquire the missing currency. By the end of 1991, the USSR could no longer fulfill its international obligations to service its external debt. Economic reform became inevitable and vital.
Among the many accusations that were brought against Gorbachev, perhaps the most important is indecision. The policy of perestroika, initiated by a part of the leadership of the CPSU headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole.
During perestroika, problems that had been accumulating for decades were exposed, especially in the economy and the international sphere. Added to this were the mistakes and miscalculations made in the process of implementing the reforms themselves. The political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development and the parties and movements that link the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as issues of the future appearance of the Soviet Union, the relationship between union and republican bodies of state power and administration, has sharply escalated.
By the early 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society and to the collapse of the USSR.

2. The collapse of the USSR. CIS education and development.
In the fall of 1990, Gorbachev, elected by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, was forced to reorganize government bodies. The executive bodies are now directly subordinate to the president. A new advisory body was established - the Federation Council, whose members were the heads of the union republics. The development and coordination of the draft of a new union treaty between the republics of the USSR began with great difficulty.
In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the country was held - the citizens of the USSR were to express their opinion on the issue of preserving the Soviet Union as a renewed federation of equal and sovereign republics. It is significant that 6 out of 15 union states (Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Moldova) did not take part in the referendum. But 76% of those who participated in the vote were in favor of preserving the Union. In parallel, the All-Russian referendum was held - the majority of its participants voted for the introduction of the post of president of the republic.
On June 12, 1991, a nationwide presidential election was held. It was B. Yeltsin. After these elections, Moscow turned into the capital of two presidents - the all-Union and the Russian. It was difficult to reconcile the positions of the two leaders, and personal relations between them did not differ in mutual disposition.
Both advocated reforms, but at the same time looked at the goals and ways of transformations differently. Gorbachev relied on the Communist Party, and Yeltsin relied on forces opposed to the CPSU. In July 1991, Yeltsin signed a decree banning the activities of party organizations in state enterprises and institutions. The events unfolding in the country indicated that the process of weakening the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the Soviet Union was becoming irreversible.
Representatives of the party and state leaders, who believed that only decisive action would help preserve the political positions of the CPSU and stop the collapse of the Soviet Union, resorted to forceful methods. They decided to take advantage of the absence in Moscow of the President of the USSR, who was on vacation in the Crimea.
Early in the morning of August 19, television and radio informed citizens that due to Gorbachev's illness, the duties were temporarily entrusted to Vice President Yanayev and that the State Emergency Committee had been set up to govern the country and effectively implement the state of emergency. This committee includes 8 people. Gorbachev found himself isolated in a state dacha. Military units and tanks were introduced to Moscow, and a curfew was declared.
The center of resistance to the Emergency Committee was the House of Soviets of the RSFSR, the so-called White House. In an address to the citizens of Russia, President Yeltsin and Acting Chairman of the Supreme Soviet Khasbulatov called on the population not to obey the illegal decisions of the State Emergency Committee, qualifying its actions as an anti-constitutional coup. Tens of thousands of residents of the capital expressed support for Yeltsin.
Fearing the outbreak of civil war, Yanaev and his associates did not dare to storm the House of Soviets. They began withdrawing troops from Moscow and flew to Crimea in the hope of reaching an agreement with Gorbachev, but the Soviet president had already returned to Moscow with Vice President Rutskoi, who had flown in to "rescue". GKChP members were arrested. Yeltsin signed decrees to suspend the activities of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the RSFSR and the publication of newspapers with a communist orientation. Gorbachev announced his resignation of the powers of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, and then issued decrees that virtually terminated the activities of the party and transferred its property to the state. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the CIS.
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