Jacques willow bushes opens the abyss. Why is Jacques-Yves Cousteau famous? Biography, research, inventions

Jacques-Yves Cousteau was definitely a genius. First, he gave the world an aqualung, then he devoted his life to the sea and brought the study of the oceans to a new level. But it was not enough for him just to swim in the seas and take pictures of marine life on camera. He wanted to change the whole world and influence the history of human civilization. In 1962, Cousteau launched an absolutely fantastic project: his team lived in houses at the bottom of the ocean for a total of three months. It was like flying into space - the whole adventure turned out to be so amazing and strange.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau dreams of resettling humanity underwater

Jacques-Yves Cousteau is an inventor, ocean explorer and author of many excellent documentaries. During World War II, Cousteau participated in the French Resistance, carried out subversive activities and received for this the highest award in France, the Order of the Legion of Honor.

He created his most important invention, scuba gear, in 1943, together with Emile Gagnan, specifically for sea sabotage. When the war ended, the discovery brought him quite a lot of money, so he was able to invest it in something completely crazy.

The original ConShelf project.

In 1950, Jacques-Yves buys the decommissioned ship Calypso and rebuilds it into a marine laboratory. From that moment until his death in 1997, Cousteau's life turns into one great pilgrimage on the waters of the ocean. Glory, honor and three Oscars for great (no kidding) documentaries will await him. But we want to tell not quite about it. There was an episode in the life of Jacques-Yves and his team when they were so ambitious that they undertook an unthinkable and fantastic undertaking for those times.

Project ConShelf I - the first underwater home in history

ConShelf I installation.

For the first time, it was possible to settle down and survive on the bottom of the sea in 1962, that is, shortly after Gagarin's flight. It is easy to guess that against the backdrop of space flight, the idea did not receive even half of the attention it deserved. Nevertheless, it was an unexpected success for everyone.

Not far from the French Marseilles in the Mediterranean Sea, the first real “underwater home” in history was located. Its dimensions were not so great: in fact, it was a metal barrel 5 meters long and 2.5 meters in diameter. The construction received the unspoken nickname "Diogenes" and became a haven for Cousteau's friends - Albert Falco (remember this name!) and Claude Wesley.

Inside the underwater house.

Oceanauts lived a week at a depth of 10 meters. If you think that the pioneers suffered all this time in an underwater hell, then you are damn wrong. Claude and Albert had a radio, television, comfortable bunk beds, regular breakfast, lunch and dinner, their own library and constant chatter on the radio with their comrades on the Calypso. In addition, both of them swam close to the new home for 5 hours a day, studying the seabed and the inhabitants of the ocean, after which they were engaged in research work at Diogenes.

A week at the ocean base was enough to understand: it is possible to live under water and it is not as difficult as it seemed at first. The experiment required immediate continuation.

ConShelf II - the first underwater village

Already in 1963, a new project was launched, which was head and shoulders above the previous one. If ConShelf I can be called the first underwater home, then ConShelf II was already a real underwater village. Six people and a parrot constantly lived here, and many more members of the Calypso crew sailed to visit. In general, the atmosphere was like in a normal cheerful hostel, only barracudas, jellyfish and divers swam outside the window, and for a walk "in the fresh air" you had to wear scuba diving equipment.

The shelf of the Red Sea, not far from the coast of Sudan, was chosen for the new experiment. ConShelf II was not a single building, but a whole complex of four structures. Surprisingly, in order to assemble and install everything, it took not so much effort and money: only two ships, 20 sailors and five divers.

Initially, it was assumed that this would indeed be a full-fledged ocean village with incredible (at that time) locks, corridors, underwater boats and oceanic observatories. In the end, I had to do everything much more modestly, but even in this form, the results are simply amazing.

The main building was built in the form of a starfish with four "arms" and a large room in the center. It was placed at a depth of 10 meters, where oceanauts could simultaneously enjoy the sunlight and calmly swim for several hours a day without experiencing problems with decompression.

One of the main goals of the experiment was just to find out whether scuba divers can descend to great depths without any problems and safely return to their underwater dwelling. As expected, it was quite real. On the surface of deep-sea divers, death from a sharp ascent and decompression sickness would have awaited, but underwater houses solved this problem.

Submarine hangar and tough experiment

In addition to the "Starfish", there was also an air hangar for a "diving saucer" - a submarine used by Cousteau's team. Waking up in the morning at a depth of 10 meters below sea level, you could drink coffee, go on a journey to a depth of 300 meters, discover a dozen unknown species of animals, and return by lunchtime to eat sandwiches with tuna and tell your friends about your adventures. And all this without leaving the ocean! For the 60s, such stories sounded like fantasy on the verge of insanity.

In addition, there was another important building. Despite its austerity, the "Rocket" was in some ways even more interesting from the point of view of the entire project. This turret was located at a depth of 30 meters and was made in order to find out exactly how scuba divers will endure the extremely difficult conditions of underwater work and life.

Unlike the Sea Star, it was rather not a house, but a punishment cell: extremely little space, constant stuffiness and high pressure, an experimental mixture of helium, nitrogen and oxygen instead of air, darkness and sharks around. In general, everything to test yourself in a real stressful situation. The only thing that pleased the two volunteers, who lived here for a week, was that the helium in the mixture made their voices squeaky and funny, and the team members often called the Rocket just to chat and laugh heartily all together.

This experiment also turned out to be successful, and everyone in it proved to be excellent: the Rocket, the scuba divers, and the breathing mixture. The first thing both test subjects did when they sailed back after a terrifying week and the dangers of decompression was to smoke a full pipe of tobacco and finally get some sleep.

The simple life of simple guys at the bottom of the ocean

Jacques-Yves Cousteau smokes at the bottom of the ocean and thinks about how to move more people here from land.

Unlike the first astronauts, the first aquanauts did not experience any particular difficulties in their work. That is, of course, to live at the bottom of the ocean for a month and work in scuba gear for several hours a day is not the most trivial task. But even the composition of the team suggests that it was easier to cope with this mission than with the duties of an astronaut. The permanent residents of the underwater houses turned out to be: a biologist, a teacher, a cook, a sports coach, a customs officer and an engineer.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his team tried to create not only tolerable, but also very comfortable conditions for the discoverers. The daily diet of the underwater settlers consisted of fresh seafood and vegetables, as well as canned food and pastries. And even more: they chose their own menu by calling the chef via video link on Calypso!

Ventilation with the help of pipes made it possible to maintain such a comfortable microclimate that the inhabitants of the "Starfish" did nothing but smoke pipes and cigarettes, not forgetting to drink wine sometimes. The oceanauts received regular visits from a hairdresser and used artificial sunbathing daily to avoid losing their tan and suffering from UV deficiency.

An aquanaut swims around an underwater house with a scooter.

The aquanauts entertained themselves with conversations, reading books, chess and watching the ocean. In order to warn residents about problems with the respiratory mixture, a parrot was placed in the Starfish, which also survived the adventure quite well, although sometimes it coughed heavily. However, it is possible that this is due to tobacco smoke. Within a month, the inhabitants of the underwater village even had their favorites among the fish. So, for example, they happily met and fed the affectionate barracuda, which constantly hung around the house. The fish was given the nickname Jules and began to recognize her "in the face."

Aquanauts clean their house of algae.

This has to be done daily. In addition, thanks to living in such conditions, some unexpected details came to light. It turned out that due to increased pressure (and, possibly, an artificial respiratory mixture), wounds on the body heal literally overnight, and beards and mustaches practically stop growing. In addition, tobacco burned many times faster, and therefore smokers had to request much more cigarettes than expected.

"A world without the sun" - a triumph that deserved Jacques-Yves Cousteau

The ConShelf II project was a real triumph for Cousteau and his team. Not only did they draw the world's attention to a new perspective on human development, but they also won an Oscar for best documentary in 1965. "A World Without Sun" is an hour and a half picture that Cousteau shot during the experiment, and it produced a striking effect.

Much of the information about ConShelf II and life at the bottom of the Red Sea is best obtained from this movie. So it is worth watching even for those who do not like documentaries. Moreover, it was filmed simply amazingly: the atmosphere of life under water is mesmerizing, each frame is a ready-made screenshot for the desktop, and many moments want to be reviewed precisely because of how aesthetically attractive they are.

The climax of the film is the journey of Cousteau and that same Albert Falco on the "Saucer" - their small UFO-shaped submarine. They descend 300 meters into the depths of the Red Sea and, to the surprise of the viewer, find landscapes and life forms at the bottom of the sea that look alien. Here, aquanauts encounter a giant six-meter fish, with schools of crustaceans running like antelopes, and an orgy of crabs for several thousand people.

The ascent of Cousteau and Falco completes the entire film, and it has a stunning effect: it seems that it is you who have just risen from the seabed after an incredible month of living in an underwater house.

ConShelf III - the collapse of hopes

After the success of the ConShelf II project, Jacques-Yves Cousteau was given the opportunity to continue development and experimentation. In 1965, ConShelf III was launched, the team's third and, unfortunately, last major experiment in this area. It was even more ambitious, even more perfect, even more exciting, but still the last.

The large dome was placed at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea between Nice and Monaco at a depth of 100 meters. Six people (among them Cousteau's son, Philippe) survived for three weeks in an underwater house that was much more autonomous than the previous ones. Along the way, the oceanauts of the third project were engaged in many experiments of a purely practical nature, which were supposed to provide a lot of information for oil companies.

ConShelf III in section.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau himself and his team finally worsened relations with sponsors from the industry. Instead of pointing out the best way to extract oil from offshore shelves, researchers began to draw public attention to the problems of ecology and the fragility of the balance of life in the ocean. More about grants for the development of underwater settlements could not be dreamed of.

Underwater houses after Cousteau

American project Tektite.

Of course, in addition to the Cousteau team, other researchers were also involved in the resettlement of mankind in the ocean. In total, more than a dozen such projects have been launched in the world. But all of them were far from being so lucky with world fame, although many had no problems with financing.

"Ichthyander-67".

For example, in the USSR, the so-called "Ikhtiandr-66" was launched - an amateur project, during which divers-enthusiasts managed to build underwater housing, which became their home for three days. The Ikhtiandr-67 that followed was much more serious - two weeks of residence, a design reminiscent of ConShelf II, and experiments with various animals.

Another famous example is the three experiments of the SEALAB project, which was launched in Bermuda in 1964 and resumed in 1965 and 1969. The history of the SEALAB base itself is worthy of a separate article. Interest in underwater homes has already begun to fade, but the authors of the project were able to convince the US government that it would be extremely useful for space research. For example, it was here that future astronaut Scott Carpenter trained, who experienced the effects of isolation and pressure drops.

SEALAB III gave scientists a lot to think about and a lot of experience for aquanauts. Unfortunately, it didn't turn out the way the organizers would have liked. From the very beginning, the project was plagued by problems, accidents occurred, and fatal failures followed one after another. It all ended with the death of one of the oceanauts, Berry Cannon, who died during an emergency repair of the underwater base for reasons not fully understood.

In addition to research projects for the settlement of the seabed, there is at least one hedonistic one. Jules Undersea Lodge, converted from an old underwater base, is the only underwater hotel currently functioning. For 30 years of work, about 10 thousand people managed to visit it, many of whom are newlyweds who decided to diversify their honeymoon.

So it's safe to say that the first thing people, having barely found themselves in an underwater dwelling, engaged in sex and the issue of reproduction. It looks promising: at least, mankind will not have problems with the settlement of underwater cities of the future.

It can be said that the construction of hydropolises failed before it even started, Jacques-Yves Cousteau is just an old man who has lost his mind, and dreams of life on the bottom of the ocean are best left to fantasy and video games. But if you look at everything from the point of view of an optimist, projects like ConShelf and SEALAB are the first, albeit too neat, steps. No man has set foot on the Moon since 1972, but we still dream of space and are convinced that in a couple of decades we will colonize Mars. The only difference between Cousteau's utopia is that we believe in it less, although it looks, in general, even more realistic.

But this is where the average person’s knowledge of the outstanding Frenchman ends, and the fact that Cousteau was also an inventor, writer, military man, Oscar winner, environmentalist, and also a member of the French Academy of Sciences is known to a select circle of his admirers. .

Fun that has become the meaning of life

Jacques-Yves Cousteau was born in the glorious wine region of Bordeaux in 1910. His father, Daniel Cousteau, had an excellent education, a doctorate in law, and was involved in managing the affairs of wealthy entrepreneurs. In this regard, the family, which has two sons, constantly moved from place to place, living in the United States, then again returning to France. Because of this, Jacques-Yves did not have much interest in schooling, as he did not have true friends, he was closed in himself and had friendly relations only with his brother Pierre-Antoine.

Together with his brother, Cousteau discovered scuba diving, he loved to explore the seabed, but initially it was only child's play. Video filming with a camera once bought by parents to record family events, but later became a personal and untouchable thing of Jacques-Yves, became the same fun. He made real films, with his own plot and actors, captured the beauty of nature and animals, the cities he had visited and, of course, the sea.

Cousteau's military career

Despite the lack of much success in training, Jacques-Yves Cousteau graduated from the Jesuit College with good marks, after which he entered the Naval Academy in 1930, and after graduation he received the rank of ensign and, as part of the cruiser team, was sent to Shanghai. Traveling the open spaces of the sea, he took photographs all the time, trying to capture everything unusual and unknown around him.

Despite his love for the sea, Jacques-Yves decided to transfer to the Academy of Naval Aviation - he was attracted to the heavenly heights and it was not just a hobby, but a real dream. But the dream was not destined to come true: while driving fast in his father's sports car, Jacques-Yves got into a terrible car accident that could have ended fatally.

But higher powers took pity on the desperate motorist who exceeded the speed limit, and Cousteau managed to survive and, despite numerous injuries, did not lose his inner core. He survived a long recovery period, managed to regain control of his paralyzed right hand, survived numerous fractures of the ribs, fingers and displacement of the vertebrae. Thus, the world has lost a pilot, but gained an outstanding researcher and scientist.

Water Explorer

In 1936, still not fully recovered after a severe accident, Cousteau was sent to the cruiser "Sufren" as an instructor. Once, during his free time from official duties, Jacques-Yves Cousteau was walking along the bustling streets of Toulon. Going into one of the shops, he came across diving goggles and bought them. After the very first dive under water, Jacques-Yves had a new hobby, exciting and unusual - the study of the depths of the sea.

From this time begins a bright period in the life of Jacques-Yves Cousteau - he acquires a new meaning, a new passion that will determine his future fate. In 1937, a happy event occurs in Cousteau's life - he marries Simone Melchior, who will later become the mother of his two sons.

At the same time, important acquaintances were made with Frederic Dumas and Philippe Taille - true friends, associates and like-minded people. Together they dive and explore the underwater world, and besides that they try to improve diving equipment.

First discoveries and successes

Jacques-Yves Cousteau, along with his team, does not stop. During the war, when the fleet in Toulon was flooded, the comrades are left without work and are engaged in editing footage that has been filmed for a long time. Thus, the first serious film by Jacques-Yves Cousteau was created under the title "18 meters under water", and when the researcher managed to demonstrate it to the occupying authorities, he received the first recognition and all kinds of assistance in conducting underwater filming. The authorities provide Cousteau with film, which was in short supply at the time, some benefits, and allow filming in a militarized zone.

In 1942, Jacques-Yves Cousteau founded a film company called Jacques-Yves Cousteau's Science Film Studio. When the question arises of creating real full-length films, it becomes obvious that without special equipment it will not be possible to carry out the venture. That is why Cousteau and his team, with the assistance of engineer Emile Gagnan (an employee of a military enterprise working with gases), begin to actively work on creating an oxygen cylinder. In 1943, an apparatus was created that proved to be excellent in operation, and Cousteau received 5% of the multi-million dollar sales of his invention.

At the bottom of the seas and oceans

When the war ended and Cousteau, Dumas and Taye returned to service, they were given the task of clearing the Toulon raid. The military department financed all the expenses of the team, and also handed over the ship for personal use. Thus, the researchers received the necessary resources to carry out diving and filming the underwater world.

This was an important boost in the career of Jacques-Yves Cousteau and he was soon promoted and given complete freedom from any official duties, concentrating on his research activities. Cousteau decided at all costs to be the first and best of the explorers of the underwater expanses and to present to the world the beauty that he encountered every day on the seabed.

Active research around the world began with the acquisition of the famous Calypso ship, on board of which an entire laboratory was equipped. Ocean exploration became the basis for writing the book In the Silent World in 1953. Based on the book, a film was made that received a huge number of awards, including an Oscar and a prize at the Cannes Film Festival. The following books were also incredibly popular: "The Living Sea", "The World Ocean", "The World without the Sun", "Dolphins", "The Life and Death of Corals".

Thanks to the countless studies of Jacques-Yves Cousteau, many discoveries have been made, wonderful books have been created and fascinating books have been written. The scientist invented scuba gear, fought for nature conservation, improved the underwater movie camera and suggested the echolocation of porpoises. Cousteau was the first explorer of the seas and oceans and remains the best in this field, a man who revolutionized the study of water expanses. Jacques-Yves Cousteau died at the age of 87 until the end of his days without losing his common sense and his passion for the sea.

Main events

in 1943, together with Emil Gagnan, he invented and tested scuba gear

pinnacle of career

oceanographer, photographer, writer, filmmaker, inventor

Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honor

Knight Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit

Military Cross 1939-1945

Officer of the Order of Naval Merit

Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters

Jacques-Yves Cousteau(fr. Jacques-Yves Cousteau; June 11, 1910, Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac, Bordeaux, France - June 25, 1997, Paris, France) - French ocean explorer, photographer, director, inventor, author of many books and films. He was a member of the French Academy. Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honor. Known as Captain Cousteau

Biography

early years

Jacques Yves was born in 1910 near Bordeaux in the town with the long name of Saint-Andre-de-Cubza in the family of lawyer Daniel Cousteau and housewife Elisabeth Cousteau. His father traveled a lot not only in France, but also abroad. Thanks to this, Jacques traveled to New York and Alsace, where he learned English and German. Due to moving, the boy studied at different schools. After receiving the certificate, he decided to connect his life with the fleet and entered the Naval Academy. Despite the unsystematic nature of his secondary education, Cousteau passed his exams brilliantly and passed the competition - he was 22nd on the list of thousands of candidates who applied for a place at the academy. While studying on the Jeanne d'Arc ship, he managed to circumnavigate the world. However, at that time the young man had not yet thought about traveling, especially for the purpose of research.

Military service

in 1930, Cousteau entered the Brest Naval School. With the rank of ensign, he graduated from the military academy, and by distribution he was sent to the naval base in Shanghai. During the 2nd World War, Jacques Yves Cousteau served in the artillery as a machine gunner, was a fighter of the French resistance, in particular, in the territory of France occupied by fascist troops in Toulon, together with resistance scouts, entered the commandant's office and stole important documents. At the end of the war, he was awarded the Order of the Holy Legion for his active participation in the anti-fascist partisan struggle.

Stages of life

In 1935, Jacques-Yves Cousteau decided to go to the Naval Aviation Academy, but he got into a car accident and aviation had to be abandoned. Cousteau broke his fingers on his left hand, several ribs, and his right hand was paralyzed, his lungs were also damaged. He has to spend eight months in intensive physical therapy. To restore in 1936, he entered the instructor on the cruiser "Sufren", assigned to the port of Toulon.

In 1936, for the first time, Jacques-Yves swims underwater with goggles. Amazed by what he sees, he decides to dedicate his life to underwater exploration.

In 1937 he married Simone Melihor and soon they had two sons, Jean-Michel (in 1938) and Philippe (in 1940).

In 1943, working in the difficult conditions of German-occupied France, Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan invented the first safe and effective breathing apparatus under water, called scuba (from Latin aqua, water + English lung, lung = aqua-lung, “water lung ”), which Cousteau later successfully used to dive to a depth of 60 meters without any harmful consequences. This invention has become truly legendary. In 1946, the production of scuba gear was launched on an industrial scale.

In 1948, Cousteau became the captain of a corvette, and in 1950 he received a decommissioned British destroyer and converted it into a floating research laboratory, which became known worldwide as the Calypso. Jacques-Yves converted the ship into an expeditionary vessel. The ship has a helicopter landing pad, scientific equipment, an underwater observation bay, single and double mini-submarines, underwater motorcycles and dozens of scuba gear. It was on board the Calypso that the illustrious captain made many oceanographic expeditions to the Atlantic, Indian Oceans, the Red, Black, Arabian Seas and the Persian Gulf.

In 1953, Jacques Yves gained worldwide recognition as a writer. Captain Cousteau released his first book, The Silent World, and two years later it was filmed. The triumph of the film was unimaginable: the audience applauded standing for more than half an hour, and the press called it the work of the century. "Palme d'Or" in Cannes and "Oscar" were received unconditionally.

In 1956, Jacques-Yves Cousteau retired from the French Navy with the rank of captain.

In 1957, Cousteau was appointed director of the oceanographic museum in Monaco.

In 1959, Captain Cousteau took part in the creation and construction of the “diving saucer” sp350, the first small submarine for scientific work in the ocean. it can accommodate two people, it can be used for observations and filming at a depth of about 370 meters, the “diving saucer” allows it to go even deeper and conduct underwater research even longer than before.

In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy awards Captain Cousteau with the Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society. the words are engraved on the medal: “To the man of the earth who gave people the key to the world of silence”

From 1962 to 1965, the captain and his friends conduct the first experiments to study the possibility of living under water. Team members work from one to four weeks in the so-called underwater houses they have designed.

In 1968, the United States premiered a new television series, The Underwater World of Jacques Cousteau, dedicated to the beauty of the deep sea. Several programs receive awards Emmy.

In 1973, in order to maintain and protect the natural resources of the earth, the Cousteau Society was formed in the United States. In the same year, the captain conducts several large expeditions to capture the harsh beauty of Antarctica.

in 1979, the youngest son, Philippe Cousteau, died; he participated in filming on the Catalina seaplane and, during splashdown, the plane fell into the sea.

In 1981, the Cousteau Foundation was created in Paris. The captain gathers a multinational team of scientists to study the Amazon basin. In 1985, having made the first transatlantic crossing on his newest ship, the Halcyone, which is propelled by an electric wind propulsion system, Captain Cousteau arrives in New York. And after that, both of his ships are sent on a ten-year round-the-world expedition, and the captain receives the "Medal of Freedom" from the hands of US President Ronald Reagan

In December 1990, Jacques-Yves' wife, Simone Cousteau, died suddenly of cancer. a year later, the illustrious captain married his longtime lover Francine Triplet. By that time, they already had a daughter, Diana (born in 1980) and a son, Pierre (born in 1982), born before marriage

In 1990, the Cousteau team, in order to draw the attention of the whole world to the fact that the unique nature of Antarctica must be preserved for future generations, deliver 6 children (one from each continent) to Antarctica

In 1994, Cousteau's team went on a scientific expedition to the unique people of the island of Madagascar.

In 1996, in the port of Singapore, the ship "Calypso" in a collision with a barge received a hole and sank. When the ship was raised from the bottom, it turned out that it was impossible to restore it for further oceanographic work. And in the same year, a large campaign was launched to build a new ship, Calypso-2.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau died in Paris on June 25, 1997, at the age of 87 from a myocardial infarction and was buried in the Saint-André-de-Cubzac cemetery.

Influence on descendants

Jacques-Yves Cousteau discovered the "blue continent" for many people. His work also allowed for a new type of scientific communication criticized at the time by some academics. The legendary ship "Calypso" went on a well-deserved rest, it was placed in the maritime museum of the city of La Rochelle. In accordance with the desire of the captain, the Calypso became an integral part of the museum, proving that Cousteau's work continues to live, so the team gladly and gratefully provided equipment and other items related to the life and work of the captain for display. To protect the most vulnerable water areas around the world, the "Cousteau Society" has developed and is implementing the "Water of the World" project. They hope that the peoples of the planet will take an active part in the implementation of the “water of the world” project, and in a few years a whole network of “Cousteau zones” will be created on earth. 1998 was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly as the International Year of the Ocean. Together with the UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the Cousteau Society is working on several projects. One of them is a research expedition to the Caspian Sea, the natural uniqueness and environmental problems of which are well known. In November 2003, the Alcyone ship left the port of Monaco and headed for the Red Sea. The purpose of the expedition of the Cousteau Society, which lasted several months, was to study the ecological state of the Sudanese coast and measures to protect it. With special trepidation, its participants visited the places where in 1955 and 1963 Jacques-Yves Cousteau filmed the films "In the world of silence" and "The world without the sun."

Jacques-Yves Cousteau is a pioneer in many fields, a French oceanographer and traveler. He invented scuba diving, created many documentaries about the life of the sea, many of which won various awards, including the Oscar, he wrote many books.

Cousteau made his first underwater film during the war and, together with engineer Emile Gagnan, developed an aqualung in 1942. In 1950, Cousteau bought the former mine-clearing ship Calypso and began to travel. In the early 1950s, he went to the Red Sea and made the first underwater color film at a depth of 150 feet. In 1956, his first big book, The Silent World, was published, and subsequently a full-length film was made on it. In addition to this book, Cousteau wrote dozens more books, including the twenty-volume encyclopedia "The World of the Ocean by Jacques Cousteau."

Jean-Yves Cousteau discovered the underwater world for all mankind, while others were mainly engaged in the study of its surface waters.

Since 1957, Cousteau has been director of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco, which, thanks to him, has become a cutting-edge research institution.

The popular science films “The World of Silence”, “The World Without Sun”, the multi-part television cycle “Underwater Odyssey of the Cousteau team” shot by his group are popular and in great demand all over the world.

The Cousteau Society headed by him was actively engaged in the preservation of life on Earth and responded to many actions. Early in 1996, Cousteau sent an observer to the annual meeting of the International Whale Commission in Aberdeen, Scotland. He hoped that the presence of observers as witnesses and rapporteurs on the activities of the commission should alert her when considering matters of whaling.

In June 1997, Cousteau passed away, but many of his ideas and initiatives are waiting to be realized.

Modern strategy for the exploration and development of the oceans

Nowadays, almost everything is open and mapped. But only almost. The meaning of the term “geographical discovery” has changed in many ways. Geographical science at the present stage sets the task of identifying relationships in nature, establishing geographical laws and patterns.

One of the most important and at the same time complex problems of modern mankind is the integrated development of the World Ocean. It can be solved only by developing a clear strategy and defining the forms of international cooperation in the development of the ocean and its preservation as an integral ecological system.

At the present stage of the development of science, great importance is attached to the study of the World Ocean by especially highly developed countries. The United States, Japan, Germany, and France stand out for the active development of national oceanographic programs.

The United States is the leader in the exploration and development of the World Ocean. Thus, in 1991, a comprehensive program was prepared in the United States COPS aimed at:

creation within a decade of the first generation of operating systems for forecasting processes occurring in the coastal regions of the ocean (ecological, biological, transport of bottom sediments);

modeling, reconstruction and forecast of synoptic variability of coastal circulation;

creation of electronic sensors, acoustic, optical, radar satellite systems for remote sensing of the ocean, autonomous in situ observation systems, numerical models of ocean circulation, methods for increasing data banks, supercomputers and data bank management systems.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography continues development and implementation of the project ATOK, for the implementation of which the Office for Advanced Ocean Research in 1994 allocated $ 56 million. Within 30 months, engineering developments and studies were carried out in the Pacific Ocean to determine the average water temperatures at great depths of the ocean along paths several thousand miles long and mapping these values ​​for climate monitoring.

From February 13, 1995 to January 15, 1996, an 11-month round-the-world expedition of the largest oceanographic vessel equipped with modern equipment took place "Malcolm Baldrige" US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The expedition carried out comprehensive studies in order to obtain data banks on the interaction of the oceans and the atmosphere. The participation of the vessel in international programs was planned.

One of the last major projects of great importance for the development of physical oceanography in the USSR was the project “Pompom-70”, and in 1985 its part, which was called “ Mesopolygon”. As a result, seven R/Vs explored a wide range of natural processes in the tropical Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. It is thanks to this project that the so-called polygon method of research has become widespread in the world. Its essence lies in the fact that ships or autonomous buoy stations are located on a relatively large area of ​​the ocean, from which long-term synchronous observations are made of the state of the ocean (on the surface and at different depths), as well as the atmosphere.

A comprehensive independent study of the World Ocean is beyond the power of any country. Therefore, close cooperation between scientists and specialists from different countries is practiced.

To date, the main research international programs are: a joint project to study global flows in the ocean (JGOFS), its biochemical part (BOFS); World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE); technological project for the development of autonomous research underwater vehicles (AUTOSUB); global ocean observing system (GOOS); the UNESCO International Coastal Ecosystems Project (COMAR); non-living resource research program (OSNLR) and some others.

Of particular interest is the program WOCE(6 years of preparatory work, USA). The experiment, which began in 1990, is managed by a specially organized committee? The most extensive hydrological part of the program, designed for 7-10 years, involves global observations of the circulation of the World Ocean (in the first three years - the Pacific, then the Indian and Atlantic oceans).

Observations include:

Installation of moored current meters;

Study of deep-water circulation using floats of neutral buoyancy of the new type ALACE (on average at a depth of 1500 m);

Global measurements of sea surface temperature, circulation in the upper layer, atmospheric pressure using 530 drifters in a water area of ​​600 km 2 ;

Sea level measurements (direct and remote);

Use of microwave altimetry with satellites ERS-1, TOPEX/POSEIDON, ADEOS.

The modeling section of the program assumes, as a first step, the development of the eddy-resolving circulation of the North Atlantic. Special data analysis centers are being organized.

In particular, within the framework of the WOCE program in 1991, a joint Soviet-American expedition was carried out in the eastern part of the Black Sea. Six drifters, the design of which met the requirements of WOCE, were built by the MHI of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences and the Manvil-Okean firm of the Manvil joint Soviet-Swiss enterprise.

The TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite system, whose mission is to study the World Ocean, is of great importance for the WOCE program. The equipment was developed jointly by American and French scientists. The launch took place on August 10, 1992; continuous observations began from the end of September 1992. The resulting data is analyzed by a team of 200 scientists involved in the study of global ocean circulation, geodesy, geodynamics, oceanic wind and waves. A very promising method of studying the ocean is associated with the use of space facilities - orbital stations and satellites. It is possible that only it will make it possible to obtain a sufficient amount of information about the state of the ocean, equal to the amount of data on the state of the atmosphere.

Another of the major international programs for the study of the oceans is GOOS proposed by the International Oceanographic Commission (IOC). This system should provide prediction of climate change and the nature of ocean pollution, promote the rational use of marine resources and coastal areas of the ocean, predict such phenomena as El Niño and their impact on the marine environment.

The data used in the GOOS system comes from coast stations, aircraft, drifting buoys, R/Vs, and 7,316 vessels from 49 countries that voluntarily make sightings along the way. The GOOS system filled data gaps from the low traffic areas of the southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

Today, the issue of systematization of the data obtained by various expeditions (national, international) and the creation of systems that allow the free use of these data is acute.

For this purpose, in 1992, the International Oceanographic Data Center(WDC-A), whose authority includes:

Data collection, compilation of tables and data catalogs;

Summation of data from oceanographic stations;

Summation of bathymetric data, results of biological observations, as well as results of measurements of surface and deep currents;

Compilation of tables containing the amounts of data, publications and various information coming from national and international organizations;

International data exchange;

Data bank management.

Thus, the strategy of modern research and development of the World Ocean is aimed at establishing geographical laws and regularities, and on the practical side, addressing issues of effective development of ocean resources. To this end, a variety of national and international programs are being adopted and implemented, and it is with the latter that the future of oceanographic research of the World Ocean lies.

12:16 am - About Jacques Cousteau from Kommersat-Vlast

Although a very controversial article, you can still learn something about Cousteau.

Unsinkable Captain

95 years ago, on June 11, 1910, in the French city of Saint-André-de-Cubzac, a man was born who, according to him, learned how to make money from water. His name was Jacques-Yves Cousteau, and today scientists, divers, and Greenpeace activists consider him their hero. Meanwhile, now few people remember that the path from an unknown naval officer to the idol of millions of viewers was not at all smooth.

Lucky Jack
Jacques-Yves Cousteau had a happy childhood. His father was a very wealthy lawyer representing the interests of two wealthy Americans, and Jacques-Yves and his brother Pierre did not have to worry about the future.
Jacques-Yves made his first trip at the age of ten, when his family temporarily moved to New York. Young Cousteau quickly settled into the New World and very soon called himself none other than Jack. Cousteau got his first experience of underwater work at an American children's summer camp, where the teacher, having found out that the boy swims and dives well, sent him to clean the bottom of the pond from snags accumulated there. Jack coped with the task perfectly, which greatly strengthened his authority among his peers. Cousteau also made his first filming in America with the help of his father's camera. Declaring himself the "producer, director and chief cameraman" of the film company Films ZIX, the boy began to shoot everything in a row, while skipping classes, until his father took the toy away from him. Around the same time, Cousteau first tried himself as a writer, writing a book about the adventures of cowboys. So already in his childhood, the future captain realized that he was best at it: diving, filming and composing.

Photo: AP
Marriage to Simone Melchior turned out to be the most profitable deal in Cousteau's life - Simone organized all the other deals for him
After returning to France, Jacques-Yves studied at a Jesuit school, and then was among the lucky ones who entered the elite Naval Academy, where officers of the French fleet were trained. Luck accompanied him further: for the first time in the history of the academy, his course went on a round-the-world trip on the training ship "Jeanne d'Arc". However, by that time the young man already had travel experience, because even before entering the academy, his parents sent him to England, Germany and Spain to improve in foreign languages. After graduating in 1933, Cousteau went to serve at the French naval base in Shanghai. But it seems that the service there did not satisfy him. The young officer achieved a transfer to the school of naval aviation in Hourten and began to learn the basics of flying. Luck ended just when Cousteau finally believed in his lucky star. One fine night, the future pilot decided to ride his father's race car on a mountain serpentine. Since, unfortunately, because of the fog, visibility on the road was zero, and the love of speed in the young man clearly prevailed over the instinct of self-preservation, the accident could not be avoided. Due to numerous fractures, Cousteau's fingers partially lost their mobility, and at one time doctors even wanted to amputate his hand. Amputation was avoided, but the career of a pilot had to be forgotten. However, his luck still did not change him: almost all of Cousteau's fellow students in the flight school died in the war, while the fleet, where the crippled officer was again transferred, escaped with small losses.
Leaving dreams of a brilliant military career, Cousteau began to devote more time to his personal life and already in 1937 he married Simone Melchior, the daughter of Admiral Henri Melchior and the granddaughter of two more admirals. And in 1938, in Toulon, where Jacques-Yves served, he met Lieutenant Philippe Tayet, who advised him to go scuba diving in order to strengthen his injured hands in an accident. Taye himself was fond of spearfishing and even invented special glasses in which he could see well under water. Soon a third hunter, Frederic Dumas, who also liked to dive with a spear, joined his friends. This is how the backbone of the team arose, which was destined to conquer the underwater kingdom, and Cousteau had a hobby that made him a very rich businessman and one of the most popular people of his time.

All down, down and down

Photo: AP
The Calypso team examined many sunken ships, but the main treasure that they managed to find under water was not ancient amphorae, but oil from the Persian Gulf.
Cousteau and his friends dreamed of an apparatus that would allow them to stay under water for as long as possible and at the same time would not hinder their movements. The duties of a naval officer not only did not prevent him from developing such a device, but even helped, because they gave access to some materials, including oxygen tanks and gas masks, from which Cousteau, with the help of a ship gunsmith, made his first diving masks. Subordinate sailors also helped, who watched from the boats so that their commander did not drown. One day in 1938, Cousteau, testing an apparatus with an oxygen cylinder, sank to a depth of 10 meters, believing that oxygen could only cause convulsions at a depth of 14 meters. His assumptions were not justified, and the sailors had to save the unconscious aquanaut.
The outbreak of the war did not prevent the exploration of the depths. Even when his cruiser "Duplex" was chasing the German battleship "Admiral Graf Spee" across the Atlantic, Cousteau did not miss the opportunity to dive. When the "Duplex" ended up in the Sargasso Sea, Cousteau decided to uncover the secret of the spawning of eels, which breed and die just in this part of the ocean. Cousteau made a dive, but did not meet a single eel. Nevertheless, the beginning of scientific research under water was laid.
The defeat of France in the war helped Cousteau to fully concentrate on his favorite business, since his cruiser was no longer chasing anyone and, along with the entire French fleet, was laid up in Toulon. Cousteau remained a French officer, but the navy was now subordinate to the Vichy government, which was collaborating with Germany. However, Cousteau had no reason to fear the new government, since his brother Pierre became a prominent collaborator. Whether Jacques-Yves was from the very beginning an enemy of the pro-fascist regime is still unknown, since in his letters he complained not about the humiliation of France, but that "in Marseilles it will be impossible to find decent housing until we get all these Jews out of here that sit on our necks."

To whom Cousteau actually sympathized at that time remains a mystery. And only one thing is certain: despite the war, he and his friends continued to dive and indulge in the joys of spearfishing in the warm waters of the French Riviera. There was also time for scientific experiments. Thus, the future stars of the ecological movement empirically established that if a pikeperch is struck in the brain with a spear, the fish either turns white and drowns, or does not turn white and floats up.
In between dives, Cousteau even performed a feat for which he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor after the war. When the Germans occupied the south of France and the French fleet sank, Cousteau joined the Maquis, the French Resistance. Together with three maquisari fighters, he, dressed in Italian uniform, entered the headquarters of the Italian invaders and photographed the book of enemy naval ciphers. However, the circumstances of this case suggest that almost the entire Italian army was in the Resistance, since the sentries calmly let Cousteau's group into the office of the chief of staff and did not bother him for four hours, while the brave intelligence officer copied all the documents found. It seems that cooperation between Cousteau and intelligence was not limited to this episode, given that the French secret services considered him their man until the end of his days. It may not be accidental that when French submarine saboteurs mined the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior in 1985, they were equipped with Cousteau scuba gear.
Meanwhile, experiments with diving led Cousteau and his friends to the idea that diving requires an apparatus with compressed air, and not with oxygen. Jacques-Yves knew exactly what he needed, but he himself could not create a proper design. Fortunately, his wife Simone's father was on the board of directors of the Air Liquide corporation, which was the largest French producer of household gas. Family ties helped Cousteau to reach the engineer Emile Gagnan, who worked for this corporation and was the author of a curious invention. Since at that time all European gasoline poured into the gas tanks of the Wehrmacht, there was not enough fuel in France. Car enthusiasts were saved by the invention of Ganyan, who invented a device that made it possible to use compressed gas instead of gasoline. Cousteau became interested in a reducer - a device for adjusting the pressure when gas is supplied to the engine and ordered Ganyan something similar, but adapted for humans. The resulting unit was called "water light" or "scuba", and Cousteau and his friends finally got the opportunity to swim freely under water at a depth of up to 73 meters.

fish days

Photo: AP
If the inhabitants of the sea did not make contact, environmentalists poisoned them with chemicals
Now that Cousteau had real know-how at his disposal, all that remained was to figure out how to use it. It was necessary to form a demand for the work of people armed with scuba gear, as well as for the scuba gear themselves. The task was not the easiest, since it was far from obvious that a scuba diver could do something that an ordinary diver wearing a familiar suit with lead boots and an oxygen hose could not handle.
However, even before the invention of scuba gear, it was clear to the Cousteau group that a person under water could be filming. The first amateur footage, filmed with a specially designed movie camera, was edited into an 18-minute film "Eight Meters Under Water". The first viewers of the film were Vichy officials and German officers. When divers acquired scuba gear in 1943, the possibilities for underwater filming increased immeasurably. The aquanauts examined the sunken ships of the French fleet, not forgetting to film at the same time. The film was called "Sunken Ships" and was at that time the only example of underwater documentary filmmaking. However, at the end of the war, the world had enough worries on land, and therefore the dream of cinematic glory had to be postponed for the future.
Cousteau was determined to make a living by scuba diving and already in 1944 announced the creation of the "Underwater Research Group". He and his fellow divers arbitrarily occupied the former German air raid shelter at Toulon and began stealthily stealing from the warehouses of the French fleet in order to replenish their supplies of equipment. Nevertheless, the fleet was more useful than harm from their actions, since the scuba divers cleared the fairways from mines, delivered secret torpedoes to the admirals from sunken German submarines, and even experienced the effects of a blast wave, describing in detail their feelings from explosions produced under water.
The advent of peace made it possible, finally, to take up business development, and Cousteau showed himself to be a real master of making money. The first way to make a profit was, of course, the sale of scuba gear. In 1946, he registered Aqua-Lung as a trademark and headed a firm with the same name. The case helped to promote the product to the American market. Shortly before the end of the war, the film "Sunken Ships" caught the eye of American journalist James Dugan, who was shocked by what he saw. After the war, Dugan met Cousteau and became an ardent propagandist for the new apparatus in the United States. In 1948, Dugan published a long article on Cousteau and received hundreds of letters in response from readers wanting to purchase scuba immediately. Among the readers was the commander of the detachment of American combat divers, Francis Douglas Fane. Cousteau was provided with clients for many years to come. Until the end of his days, Jacques-Yves Cousteau received 5% of the sale of every scuba gear in the world.

Photo: AFP
Having given birth to Cousteau's two children, former flight attendant Francine Triplet soared very high
Fundraising was another way to raise money. Cousteau from the very beginning presented his project not as a simple commercial enterprise, but as a daring breakthrough of mankind into a new element, and therefore did not hesitate to ask for money for a holy cause. The first and most significant success in this field was the communication of Cousteau with the Irish beer king Thomas-Loel Guinness. Acquaintance with Guinness, as in the case of Gagnan, was due to Simone Cousteau. Even during the war, Simone accidentally met a woman who introduced Cousteau to her husband. Having heard about the sailor's dream to someday acquire his own ship, the new acquaintance promised to arrange everything after the war and kept his promise, bringing Cousteau with Guinness.
A wealthy philanthropist was imbued with the ideas of conquering the depths and allocated money to the enthusiast of the "water lung" to buy a ship. In 1950, Cousteau bought a former minesweeper, converted into a passenger ship that carried passengers around the Mediterranean islands. Jacques-Yves named the ship "Calypso" and turned it into a floating oceanographic laboratory. Finally, Cousteau received support from Prince Rainier III of Monaco, who invited him to head the Oceanographic Museum of the Principality. This position gave not only prestige, but also significant financial support for the scientific projects of the naturalist.
The ship "Calypso" sailed not under the French tricolor, but under its own white-and-green flag of Cousteau, and yet the captain hoped to knock out financial assistance from the French state. Paris did not give money, but Jacques-Yves nevertheless figured out how to persuade the officials. Cousteau agreed to help the famous archaeologist Professor Benois excavate a sunken ancient Roman ship. Numerous amphoras were raised from the bottom, one of which even splashed two thousand year old wine, but all this was still not enough to capture the imagination of officials. What was needed was a bright find that would prove that scuba divers can work miracles. In the end, Cousteau still figured out what to make a sensation out of. Many amphorae were found to bear the inscription SES, and Professor Benois suggested that this was the mark of Marcus Sestius, a merchant who lived on the Mediterranean island of Denus in the 3rd century BC. e. It was just a guess, but Cousteau went to the island and, in the ruins of one of the ancient villas, found an image of a trident and a pair of squiggles, which, with great imagination, could be mistaken for SES. Naturally, Cousteau announced that he had found the house of Sestius, who, no doubt, also belonged to the sunken ship. After such a triumph of underwater archeology, Cousteau received material support from the authorities of Marseille, and then from the central government, which agreed to pay two-thirds of his expenses, provided that Calypso would be engaged in science for nine months of the year.
The third way to earn was orders from commercial enterprises. In 1954, British Petroleum invited Cousteau to explore the bottom of the Persian Gulf in the Abu Dhabi area, to which the captain happily agreed. The researcher himself wrote that the company turned to him for the reason that one of its managers read his book. However, the book could be read already due to the fact that Simone had a common grandmother with the president of British Petroleum, Basil Jackson. The Calypso team went to the Persian Gulf and, having drilled about 400 wells there, discovered oil. On another occasion, one of the French factories hired Cousteau in order to determine a place in the sea for the future disposal of their chemical waste. The owners of the plant were worried about possible troubles with local fishermen, who did not want the chemicals to kill all coastal fish. Cousteau, who at that time was not yet listed as the leader of the world movement for the preservation of the environment, set up an experiment that he filmed. Barrels with waste were thrown into the water, after which, as expected, the fish in the experiment area floated up belly up. As a result, the aquanauts found a bottom cavity for the plant, where, according to Cousteau, waste could be dumped for another hundred years. Finally, one of the most profitable was an order from Gaz de France, which planned to lay a gas pipeline under the Mediterranean Sea to pump natural gas from the Sahara. The Calypso team carried out a thorough and very professional survey of the bottom along the entire route of the future gas pipeline, for which they were appropriately rewarded.

A flight attendant named Francine

Photo: AP
The discoverer of the underwater kingdom has earned all the awards he could: from the Order of the Legion of Honor to the Oscar
Cousteau never took on contracts that, in his opinion, were below his dignity and could be carried out by ordinary divers. The captain insisted that his business was a real cultural phenomenon of universal human significance, and not just a money-making enterprise. To maintain the image of a man who opens at least a new dimension for humanity under the ocean waves, Cousteau made films and wrote books that sold well, and at the same time helped him sell his services at prices incomparable to the payment for standard diving work.
Cousteau filmed with talent, telling the viewer fascinating stories even when flocks of nondescript fish were just splashing on the screen. However, when it was possible to make the shots more exciting, the naturalist showed a certain ingenuity. So, not hoping to film a spontaneous fight between octopuses, Cousteau deliberately caught a couple of cephalopods and literally set them on each other. On another occasion, the captain wished to film a shark attack scene on a dolphin. Since the sharks were in no hurry to their prey, they had to be lured by pouring a couple of buckets of blood into the ocean. If underwater creatures were in no hurry to leave their holes and appear in front of the lens, the conservationist smoked them out with chemicals.
The films were a resounding success not only among the audience, but also among film academics. In 1956, his film In the Silent World won an Oscar and the Palme d'Or at Cannes, and his book of the same name sold five million copies in twenty languages. This was followed by two more "Oscars" and worldwide fame. The researcher's books were reprinted many times, bringing millions of royalties to the author. Spectators and readers liked to feel like they were partners in extraordinary adventures in the underwater kingdom, which seemed achievable for anyone who acquired scuba gear, and therefore both books and scuba gear found their buyers. Jacques-Yves Cousteau argued that "there are three important things in the world: air, water and money", adding that he had already learned how to make money from water. In fact, he knew how to make money out of thin air, as he successfully sold people the dream of a new free and amazing life, full of vivid impressions.

Photo: GAMMA
After 46 years of service, "Calypso" followed the example of her captain and sank to the bottom
Cousteau was well aware that his business was based primarily on his image as a fearless adventurer with the heart of a humanitarian and a dreamer. He tried a lot to make his image associated primarily with the brave Odysseus. His ship was called "Calypso" - that was the name of the nymph who captivated Odysseus. Pike perch, which became the hero of one of his films, was named Ulysses (that is, Odysseus). And even the Yorkshire terrier, who traveled with the team, was also called Ulysses. But old feats and external details like the unchanged red diving cap were not enough to remain a hero for several decades. Since the 1970s, Cousteau has become one of the leaders of the environmental movement. He regularly demanded to stop polluting the environment and ban nuclear weapons testing. However, sometimes his statements became somewhat extravagant. So, in 1991, a naturalist came up with an original program for solving the demographic problem, saying: "To stabilize the world population, we must exterminate 350 thousand people every day. It's scary to talk about such things, but it's not better not to talk about them." On another occasion, Cousteau noted that "the spread of birth control and forced abortions in the third world are ecologically insufficient and unfair to the social balance of the world. White women from the upper and middle class of modern society are too healthy and fertile to be excluded from action." international coercive birth control measures".
Finally, in order to preserve his name as an unsullied brand that would be associated exclusively with him, Cousteau started a lawsuit with his own son. The captain's family life seemed like an idyll to those around him, until in 1979 his youngest and beloved son Philip died in a plane crash. Jacques-Yves immediately made it clear that his eldest son Jean-Michel had no chance of becoming the heir to his business. Relations with her son deteriorated even more after Simone died in 1990. It turned out that for at least the last 15 years, Cousteau had a mistress - flight attendant Francine Triplet, who managed to give birth to two children for him. The navigator handed over to Francine the reins of government in the Cousteau Society, which disposed of significant funds, after which it became finally clear that the Cousteau inheritance, including his name, would pass to Francine and her children. Francine began her activities in a new capacity by excluding Jean-Michel from the characters of the cartoon, which was filmed based on the adventures of the Cousteau team.
In subsequent years, relations with Jean-Michel finally deteriorated, and in 1995 Cousteau sued his son, demanding that he not dare to call his resort in Fiji "Cousteau Resort". The matter was settled amicably after the unloved son renamed his enterprise Jean-Michel Cousteau Resort.
Despite all the family squabbles, the captain was more concerned about the fate of his ship. In January 1996, the Calypso, which was in the harbor of Singapore, was rammed by another ship and sank. Upon learning of what had happened, Cousteau for the first time in his life publicly cried. "Calypso" was raised and transported to Marseille, but Jacques-Yves was no longer destined to go to sea on it. Cousteau died in his sleep on June 25, 1996. Members of his family still cannot decide who his name should really belong to.
KIRILL NOVIKOV