Cognition is the process of a person’s comprehension of new, previously unknown knowledge.
Structure process of cognition:

1. The subject of cognition is an active individual, social group or society as a whole, endowed with consciousness and goal-setting.
2. The object of cognition is what the subject’s cognitive activity is directed towards. Can be animate (a person himself, an animal) and inanimate (natural phenomena); material (a really existing object) or ideal (hypothesis, theory).
3. The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relationship of thought to reality, existing in a logical linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs.

Characteristics of the main types of cognition

The question of the relationship between the sensory and the rational gave rise to two philosophical directions.
Empiricism- the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
Rationalism- our knowledge can be obtained only with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
But it is impossible to contrast the sensory and rational in cognition, since the two stages of cognition manifest themselves as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is lower, the second is higher. Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge of reality.

Knowledge- the result of knowledge of reality, the content of consciousness.

Types of knowledge:
Misconception- knowledge that does not correspond to a real object, but is accepted as truth. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
Everyday- based on common sense, formed as a result of people’s daily lives, comes down to a statement of facts and their description.
Practical- the basis is the activities of people to realize their needs.
Artistic- built on an image, characterized by emotionality and subjectivity.
Scientific- characterized by a desire for objectivity, consistency, logic, exists in the form of concepts and categories, general principles, laws, theories.
Rational- reflects reality in terms, based on rational thinking.
Irrational- reflects reality in emotions, often based on intuition, does not obey the laws of logic.

Forms of knowledge

Scientific- objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge
empirical level methods: – observation; – experiment; - description.	theoretical level methods: – induction (from particular to general); – deduction (from general to specific); – analysis (decomposition of the whole into parts) – synthesis (combining individual knowledge into a single whole)
Unscientific- scattered, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws
pre-scientific – prerequisites of scientific knowledge parascientific – incompatible with existing scientific knowledge pseudoscientific – deliberately using conjectures and prejudices anti-scientific – utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of ​​reality

Features of social cognition:
- the subject and object of knowledge coincide (society studies itself, the sociologist sees the process from the inside, since he himself is a participant in social relations. Therefore, a personal assessment of social phenomena plays an important role);
- the researcher’s capabilities are limited (it is not always possible to conduct an experiment);
- the complexity and variability of the object of study gives rise to a pluralism of points of view on society.

When studying society, one should use concrete historical approach:
- establish a relationship between the past and the future;
- identifying general patterns, it is necessary to remember the originality and uniqueness of the historical path of peoples, countries, regions;
- study social phenomena in their diversity and interdependence;
- consider current activities as the result of previous ones.

Features of cognition through art:
- emotional coloring;
- carried out using images.
Image- this is a reflection of reality, possessing certain properties of a really existing object, refracted through the inner world of the creator (artist, director, writer).
Canon– a set of applied rules for creating an image. Characterized by the peculiarities of the worldview of the era. (For example, in the period of antiquity, the beauty of the human body and proportionality are glorified; in the Middle Ages, the body is perceived as something sinful, therefore it is depicted flat, covered with clothes).

Throughout his long path of existence and development, man was inclined to research, study, and discoveries. He did a lot to simplify his life, made a lot of effort to discover the meaning of his existence, any patterns and causes of natural phenomena.

The essence of the phenomenon

The concept of knowledge is interpreted quite broadly. In the most general sense, it is understood as a process or a whole set of such mechanisms that help us study the world, accumulate objective data about it, and also identify various kinds of patterns. It is difficult to overestimate the role of this phenomenon. Because it was thanks to him that people achieved the technological, medical, technical and other successes that we can now observe. Social science tells us quite widely about this concept. forms, its tasks - we can learn all this back in school. However, the science that is specifically devoted to the study of this aspect is called epistemology. And she comes in

What is it?

The process of cognition is very complex and multifaceted. It is quite problematic to describe it, or to put it in simple forms. It follows that we must first understand the complex structure of this aspect of our lives, and then determine its purpose and significance for the whole civilization. In a broad sense, the concept of cognition rather weakly reflects the entire essence of the process. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly highlight its structure.

What is it like?

Earlier, when giving a definition, we said that cognition is a multifaceted mechanism. This is not one single process, but a whole system closely interconnected with other important elements. In order not to delve too deeply into philosophical terminology and science, we will build on the course and recommendations that the subject gives us - social science. Types of cognition and forms of cognition are often used, implying the same meaning - a set of techniques and methods through which the process under study occurs. Let's talk in more detail about each of them.

Household

Many scientists do not distinguish this form of cognition into a separate category. However, it should be noted that knowledge of life without the everyday, everyday level is almost impossible. This species does not require serious study. There is no need to study it closely or use special tools. For example, to understand that fire has a high temperature, it is enough to get burned. You will not have any measuring instruments, but you will be able to say with certainty: the flame is very hot.

Thus, the everyday process of cognition is extremely inaccurate. He gives only approximate answers to our questions. However, it is perceived quickly enough. This mechanism is intuitive and does not require a lot of time to develop. We encounter this form of cognition most often in our everyday life. As a rule, the older we are, the more knowledge we accumulate through this type. But history knows many exceptions.

Scientific social cognition

It is also called the scientific method. This is the most accurate, but also labor-intensive way of cognition. It does not require you to show artistic qualities, but only a love of precision and study. This method is used by all academic disciplines, including social studies. Types of cognition in general, one way or another, are based on this type. After all, with its help you can decipher simpler knowledge, which will make it much more useful.

This form is also quite diverse. For example, there is a scientific one. It is aimed at studying society, associations of people, social groups and much more. All scientific methods are divided into two types - theoretical and empirical. The first makes assumptions, checks them for compliance with real knowledge, builds models and entire systems. The practical method tests the reality of hypotheses through experimentation, observation, and also makes adjustments to hypothetical views.

Empirical knowledge can also reveal new phenomena that will then be the subject of close attention by theorists. Although this form of knowledge has found the largest number of adherents, it cannot be done without it, which, I must say, is quite appropriate. Thus, some scientists point out that new knowledge is anomalies. Science, having discovered some, in its opinion, unnatural phenomenon, begins to prove its existence in the real system of worldview. Tries to identify its patterns, as well as why it does not fit into the framework of existing theories.

Often such anomalies completely contradict established opinion. Remember Copernicus or other scientists trying to prove revolutionary hypotheses. They discovered such anomalies and tried to understand them, as a result of which the already accumulated knowledge seemed incorrect to them. Thus, previously people did not believe that the Earth was spherical or that all planets revolve around the Sun. History knows many similar examples - Einstein, Galileo, Magellan, etc.

Artistic

Some may argue that this type includes social and humanitarian knowledge. But that's not true. This form is the most striking. It is the simplest and at the same time the most complex. Let's say that several thousand years ago people just began to study writing, and before that they only used drawings to convey information. They described natural phenomena by transferring its visual image to a medium (a stone, for example). This greatly simplified interactions between generations to transfer experience.

Subsequently, people began to develop and invent languages ​​to ensure more accessible communication and exchange of information. Symbols, pictures, images - all this looks quite simple only at the initial stage. Look at the artwork now. In order to understand the meaning that the authors want to convey to us, to know something, it is necessary to make an effort, to understand what we saw or read, to understand the ways the author expresses his thoughts.

It must be said that this form significantly distinguishes us from many animals, but even more significantly from each other. Nowadays, people can easily be divided into those who try to depict things, passing them through the prism of their inner world, and those who see everything as it is. This is why the art form is incredibly important, useful and complex, but it can never be objective. This is the main problem of this type of cognition. After all, it pursues the goal of identifying and accumulating objective knowledge, rather than subjective visions. Nevertheless, this form is used quite often. She also made a huge contribution to the development of our civilization.

Philosophical

Philosophical knowledge is incredibly valuable both for the world that existed several centuries ago and for you and me. Only through philosophical knowledge can one go beyond reality and existence. It was philosophers who began to put forward hypotheses about the structure of our world and even the Universe. They talked about our body, our thinking, the characteristics of all people even before methods of studying all these aspects were invented.

Philosophical knowledge is usually divided into two types - epistemological (or general) and ontological. The second type is based on the study of essence and being, from all sides - real, mental, subjective, objective, etc. What is noteworthy is that through this type of knowledge people not only determined the world around them, found their place in it, but also showed what this place should be like.

Philosophy often strives for idealization, so this type of knowledge rather answers the questions: “How is it, how should it be?” Again, in fairly general terms. Such general forms are given to us by social science, the types of knowledge in which are not revealed so fully as not to overstep the boundaries of philosophy.

steps

In addition to types, levels of cognition are also distinguished. Sometimes they are classified as forms. But it is more correct to talk about them as steps that are used in all types. There are only two such levels. But they play an incredibly large role in our lives.

Sensual level

It is built on our senses and completely depends on them. Since ancient times, even when the descendants of modern man did not begin to master tools, they were already endowed with feelings. Think about the everyday type of cognition. For example, we would not understand that fire is hot if we could not feel it. Although many people talk about 6 senses, there are actually more. Thus, the seventh sense could be called the feeling of attraction, the so-called force of gravity.

Forms of the sensory level

In general, there are only 3 of them. They combine many senses. These are the following mechanisms:

1. Feeling. Capable of conveying to us some properties of an object. Thanks to the uniqueness of each of the senses, we receive a “report” about the characteristics of a particular thing, phenomenon, or process. Using the example of an apple, we can say that with the help of vision we see color, with the help of touch we can determine its softness, temperature, shape, with the help of taste buds - taste.
2. Perception. This is a more global form. Through it we receive the most complete information, we combine everything that was obtained through sensation into a holistic picture. By adding up everything described in the first paragraph, we will understand many important characteristics of an apple.
3. Performance. Based on our memory. Allows you to create a sensual image of an object. For example, think about a lemon, how it is carefully cut into slices and sprinkled with salt. You will immediately feel a rush of saliva in your mouth, as well as a sour taste. The shape of the lemon, its color and other characteristics will come to mind. Representation allows us not to lose important knowledge that we have gained in life.

Rational level

Levels of cognition without a final, logical stage would look wrong. Historically, from the moment of his appearance on the planet, man was able to feel. But I learned to think, write, and analyze much later. This level is completely built on mental qualities. Therefore, it is incredibly complex and not as visual as it is sensual. However, its benefits are extremely high, especially since with the development of modern society it is the rational level that is becoming more in demand. Most objects on our planet have already passed through all forms of the sensory level. This means that they need to be systematized, recorded and certain conclusions drawn.

Forms of the rational level

There are three types:

1. Concept. Using sensation, we determined the property, thanks to perception, we created a complete picture, and using this form, we were able to present it. To understand that lemon tastes sour, you don’t have to try it, just read about it.
2. Judgment. It is always directional. For example, the phrase “lemon is sour” is a prime example of this form. Judgment can be negative or positive. But it is also built either on a concept or on a perception.
3. Conclusion. Comes from the previous form. It sums up everything that we have systematized into one answer. So, having said that lemon is not sweet, not poisonous and has a yellow color, we can draw some conclusion about this subject. There are three types of inference: inductive, deductive and analogical. Remember the stories about Sherlock Holmes. He made extensive use of deduction to draw conclusions using ordinary judgments.

Separately, intuition is sometimes distinguished as a special level of cognition. True, this phenomenon is still too poorly studied.

General concept of knowledge

"All men by nature desire to know"

This is the famous first sentence of Aristotle's Metaphysics. An interesting feature can be noticed here: knowledge, at least since the time of Aristotle, can be understood as desire, figuratively speaking, as intellectual thirst. When knowledge is understood as a desire, it, by definition, must be accompanied by some kind of need, a lack of something. Those who thirst for knowledge do not yet possess it, but are still in search of it. Aristotle praises intellectual curiosity; in his opinion, this property is extremely important - it makes a person human.

However, if we go beyond the humanistic tradition, we may well encounter completely different views of knowledge. One example of this is the philosophy of Taoism, which holds that knowing something well often means mastering it perfectly. Often, when we say “know,” we mean “know how...” (i.e., “be able to”), and not “know that...”. It seems that this kind of knowledge - practical rather than intellectual - is extremely valued by Lao Tzu. However, this already relates rather to the classification of knowledge. And before proceeding with the classification of knowledge, it would be more appropriate to define the concept of knowledge itself.

In a broad sense, knowledge is a subjective image of reality in the form of concepts and ideas.

Knowledge in the narrow sense is the possession of verified information (answers to questions) that allows you to solve a given problem.

Knowledge is the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective natural connections and relationships of the real world.

So, the ambiguity of the term “knowledge”:

Knowledge as abilities, skills, skills based on awareness;

Knowledge as cognitively significant information;

Knowledge as a person's attitude to reality.

From all of the above, we can conclude that knowledge is the result of human cognitive activity, a certain set of information and knowledge in any area. Knowledge helps people rationally organize their activities and solve various problems that arise in the process.

Types and forms of knowledge

Knowledge is not limited to the sphere of science; knowledge in one form or another exists beyond the boundaries of science. Each form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. - corresponds to specific forms of knowledge. There are also forms of knowledge that have a conceptual, symbolic or artistic-exemplary basis.

There are different types of knowledge: scientific, extra-scientific, everyday-practical (everyday, common sense), intuitive, religious, etc.

Everyday practical - knowledge that existed in the early stages of human history and provided basic information about nature and the surrounding reality (the so-called common sense, signs, edifications, recipes, personal experience, traditions, etc.), is non-systematic , unsubstantiated, unwritten character. Ordinary knowledge serves as the basis for a person’s orientation in the world around him, the basis for his everyday behavior and foresight, but usually contains errors and contradictions.

Scientific is knowledge based on rationality, characterized by objectivity and universality, and claims to be universally valid. Scientific knowledge is the process of obtaining objective, true knowledge. Its task is to describe, explain and predict the process and phenomenon of reality. Scientific revolutions that occur in the course of the development of scientific knowledge and lead to a change in theories and principles are replaced by periods of normal development of science (deepening and detailing knowledge).

Scientific knowledge is characterized by logical validity, evidence, reproducibility of results, verifiability, and the desire to eliminate errors and overcome contradictions.

The form of scientific knowledge is younger than many forms of extra-scientific knowledge.

Extrascientific knowledge is not someone’s invention; it is produced by a certain intellectual community according to norms and standards that differ from rationalistic ones; they have their own sources and means of knowledge. In the history of culture, forms of knowledge classified as “department” of extra-scientific knowledge are united by a common concept - esotericism.

They also divide forms of knowledge according to the degree of scientificity; knowledge can be scientific and extra-scientific.

Scientific knowledge can be:

Empirical (based on experience or observation)

Theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models).

Scientific knowledge in any case must be substantiated on an empirical or theoretical basis.

Theoretical knowledge - abstractions, analogies, diagrams that reflect the structure and nature of the processes of changing objects occurring in the subject area. This knowledge explains phenomena and can be used to predict the behavior of objects.

Extra-scientific knowledge can be:

parascientific - knowledge incompatible with the existing epistemological standard. A wide class of parascientific (para from the Greek - about, with) knowledge includes teachings or reflections about phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of scientific criteria;

pseudoscientific - deliberately exploiting conjectures and prejudices. Pseudoscience often presents science as the work of outsiders. Symptoms of pseudoscience include illiterate pathos, fundamental intolerance to refuting arguments, and pretentiousness. Pseudoscientific knowledge is very sensitive to the topic of the day, sensation. Its peculiarity is that it cannot be united by a paradigm, cannot be systematic or universal. Pseudoscientific knowledge coexists with scientific knowledge. It is believed that pseudoscientific knowledge reveals itself and develops through quasi-scientific knowledge;

quasi-scientific - they are looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion. Quasi-scientific knowledge, as a rule, flourishes in conditions of strictly hierarchical science, where criticism of those in power is impossible, where the ideological regime is strictly manifested. In the history of Russia, the periods of “triumph of quasi-science” are well known: Lysenkoism; fixism as a quasi-science in Soviet geology of the 50s; defamation of cybernetics, etc.;

anti-scientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality. The prefix “anti” draws attention to the fact that the subject and methods of research are opposite to science. It is associated with the eternal need to discover a common, easily accessible “cure for all diseases.” Particular interest and craving for anti-science arise during periods of social instability. But, although this phenomenon is quite dangerous, a fundamental deliverance from anti-science cannot happen;

pseudoscientific - represent intellectual activity that speculates on a set of popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, Bigfoot, the monster from Loch Ness;

everyday and practical - delivering basic information about nature and the surrounding reality. People, as a rule, have a large amount of everyday knowledge, which is produced every day and is the initial layer of all knowledge. Sometimes the axioms of common sense contradict scientific principles and hinder the development of science. Sometimes, on the contrary, science, through a long and difficult process of proof and refutation, comes to the formulation of those provisions that have long established themselves in the environment of everyday knowledge. Ordinary knowledge includes common sense, signs, edifications, recipes, personal experience, and traditions. Although it records the truth, it does so unsystematically and without evidence. Its peculiarity is that it is used by a person almost unconsciously and in its application does not require preliminary systems of evidence;

personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity. Collective knowledge is generally valid (transpersonal), presupposes the presence of concepts, methods, techniques and rules of construction common to the entire system.

Folk science is a special form of extra-scientific and extra-rational knowledge. Previously, it was the privilege of shamans, priests, and clan elders; now it has become the business of individual groups or subjects (healers, healers, psychics).

According to other sources, types of knowledge are classified as follows:

Everyday - built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. Based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationships with each other and with nature. Reduces to a statement of facts and their description)

Practical - built on actions, mastery of things, transformation of the world

Artistic - built on an image (A holistic reflection of the world and the person in it. Built on an image, not a concept)

Scientific - built on concepts (Understanding of reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)

Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, built on rational thinking

Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, anomalous and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.

Social science. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

1.3. Types of knowledge

1.3. Types of knowledge

Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge.

Knowledge – 1) a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its correct reflection in human thinking; 2) having experience and understanding that are subjectively and objectively correct; 3) a tool for organizing activities at various structural levels of people’s organization.

In the middle of the 19th century. founder of positivism O. Comte proposed a concept for the development of human knowledge, considering three successively changing forms of knowledge: religious (based on tradition and individual faith); philosophical (based on intuition, rational and speculative in nature); positive (scientific knowledge based on recording facts during targeted observation or experiment).

Classification of forms of human knowledge M. Polanyi speaks of two types of knowledge in humans: explicit (expressed in concepts, judgments, theories) and implicit (the layer of human experience that cannot be fully reflected).

Classification of types of knowledge depending on:

information carrier: knowledge of people; knowledge in books; knowledge in e-books; Internet knowledge; knowledge in museums;

presentation method: oral speech, text, image, table, etc.;

degree of formalization: everyday (unformalized), structured, formalized;

areas of activity: engineering knowledge, economic, medical, etc.;

ways to gain knowledge: practical (based on actions, mastery of things, transformation of the world) everyday, scientific, extrasensory, religious;

the nature of the relationships between the objects represented in knowledge: declarative, procedural (knowledge about actions on objects necessary to achieve a goal).

Types of knowledge:

1) Ordinary (everyday)- based on everyday experience, consistent with common sense and largely coincides with it, comes down to a statement and description of facts. Ordinary knowledge is empirical in nature and is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people and their relationships (with each other and with nature).

2) Mythological– represents the unity of rational and emotional reflection of reality. With the help of mythological knowledge, primitive man structured reality, that is, ultimately, he cognized it.

3) Religious– the emphasis is on belief in the supernatural and emotional-figurative reflection of reality, rather than on evidence and argumentation. The results of religious reflection are formulated in concrete, visual and sensory images. Religion offers a person absolute ideals, norms and values.

4) Artistic– is formed in the field of art, does not strive to be demonstrative and substantiated. The form of existence of this type of knowledge is an artistic image. In art, unlike science and philosophy, fiction is allowed. Therefore, the image of the world that art offers is always more or less conventional.

5) Philosophical– the main feature is its rational-theoretical form.

6) Rational– reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking.

7) Irrational– reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, anomalous and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

8) Personal (implicit)– depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.

9) Quasi-scientific– combines the features of artistic, mythological, religious and scientific knowledge. Quasi-scientific knowledge is presented in mysticism and magic, alchemy, astrology, parasciences, esoteric teachings, etc.

Forms of knowledge:

* Scientific– objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge.

Signs of scientific knowledge: rational knowledge (obtained with the help of reason, intellect); formalized in theory, principles, laws; essential, repeatable (not always possible); systemic (based on many things); this is knowledge obtained and recorded by scientific methods and means; knowledge striving for accuracy (precise measurements, availability of terminology); knowledge that is open to criticism (unlike religion, culture, art, etc.), which has a special scientific language.

* Unscientific– scattered, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws.

Non-scientific knowledge is divided into:

A) pre-scientific knowledge – knowledge acquired before the advent of modern science; b) parascientific knowledge - forms of cognitive activity that arise as an alternative or addition to existing types of scientific knowledge (astrology, extrasensory knowledge (this is knowledge that is scientific in form, but non-scientific in content - ufology), c) extra-scientific knowledge – deliberately distorted ideas about the world (its signs: intolerance, fanaticism; individual knowledge, etc.); G) anti-scientific knowledge – unconscious, erroneous (utopia, belief in a panacea); d) pseudoscientific knowledge – characterized by extreme authoritarianism and reduced criticism, ignoring empirical experience that contradicts one’s own postulates, rejection of rational argumentation in favor of faith; e) pseudoscientific knowledge - knowledge that has not been proven or disproven, deliberately using conjectures and prejudices.

Knowledge-related processes: knowledge acquisition, knowledge accumulation, knowledge storage, knowledge transformation, knowledge transfer, knowledge loss, knowledge visualization.

Knowledge is necessary for a person to navigate the world around him, to explain and predict events, to plan and implement activities and develop other new knowledge.

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Theory of knowledge was first mentioned by Plato in his book The Republic. Then he identified two types of knowledge - sensory and mental, and this theory has been preserved to this day. Cognition - This is the process of acquiring knowledge about the world around us, its patterns and phenomena.

IN structure of cognition two elements:

• subject(“knower” - person, scientific society);
• an object(“knowable” - nature, its phenomena, social phenomena, people, objects, etc.).

Methods of cognition.

Methods of cognition generalized on two levels: empirical level knowledge and theoretical level.

Empirical methods:

1. Observation(studying an object without intervention).
2. Experiment(learning takes place in a controlled environment).
3. Measurement(measurement of the degree of size of an object, or weight, speed, duration, etc.).
4. Comparison(comparison of similarities and differences of objects).

1. Analysis. The mental or practical (manual) process of separating an object or phenomenon into its components, disassembling and inspecting the components.
2. Synthesis. The reverse process is the combination of components into a whole, identifying connections between them.
3. Classification. Decomposition of objects or phenomena into groups according to certain characteristics.
4. Comparison. Detecting differences and similarities in compared elements.
5. Generalization. A less detailed synthesis is a combination of common characteristics without identifying connections. This process is not always separated from synthesis.
6. Specification. The process of extracting the particular from the general, clarifying for better understanding.
7. Abstraction. Consideration of only one side of an object or phenomenon, since the rest are not of interest.
8. Analogy(identification of similar phenomena, similarities), a more advanced method of cognition than comparison, since it includes the search for similar phenomena in a time period.
9. Deduction(movement from the general to the particular, a method of cognition in which a logical conclusion emerges from a whole chain of conclusions) - in life, this type of logic became popular thanks to Arthur Conan Doyle.
10. Induction- movement from facts to the general.
11. Idealization- creation of concepts for phenomena and objects that do not exist in reality, but there are similarities (for example, an ideal fluid in hydrodynamics).
12. Modeling- creating and then studying a model of something (for example, a computer model of the solar system).
13. Formalization- image of an object in the form of signs, symbols (chemical formulas).

Forms of knowledge.

Forms of knowledge(some psychological schools are simply called types of cognition) there are the following:

1. Scientific knowledge. A type of knowledge based on logic, scientific approach, conclusions; also called rational cognition.
2. Creative or artistic knowledge. (It's also art). This type of cognition reflects the world around us with the help of artistic images and symbols.
3. Philosophical knowledge. It lies in the desire to explain the surrounding reality, the place that a person occupies in it, and what it should be.
4. Religious knowledge. Religious knowledge is often classified as a type of self-knowledge. The object of study is God and his connection with man, the influence of God on man, as well as the moral principles characteristic of this religion. An interesting paradox of religious knowledge: the subject (man) studies the object (God), which acts as the subject (God) who created the object (man and the whole world in general).
5. Mythological knowledge. Cognition characteristic of primitive cultures. A way of cognition among people who had not yet begun to separate themselves from the world around them, who identified complex phenomena and concepts with gods and higher powers.
6. Self-knowledge. Knowledge of one’s own mental and physical properties, self-awareness. The main methods are introspection, introspection, formation of one’s own personality, comparison of oneself with other people.

To summarize: cognition is a person’s ability to mentally perceive external information, process it and draw conclusions from it. The main goal of knowledge is both to master nature and to improve man himself. In addition, many authors see the goal of knowledge in a person’s desire for