Cicero where the information was taken from. Interesting facts about Cicero
CICERO (Cicero) Mark Tullius (106-43 BC), Roman politician, orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. From the works, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy and more than 800 letters have been preserved. The writings of Cicero are a source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome.
CICERON Mark Tullius (Cicero Marcus Tullius) (January 3, 106, Arpina - December 7, 43 BC, near Cayeta, now Gaeta), Roman orator, eloquence theorist and philosopher, statesman, poet, writer and translator. The surviving legacy consists of speeches, treatises on the theory of eloquence, philosophical writings, letters and verse passages.
Biographical information
A native of the town of Arpina (120 km south-east of Rome) from a family of horsemen, Cicero has lived in Rome since 90, studying eloquence from the jurist Mucius Stsevola Augur. At 76 he was elected quaestoroma and sent magistrate duties in the province of Sicily. As a quaestor who completed his magistracy, he becomes a member of the Senate and goes through all stages of the Senate career: at 69 - aedile, 66 - praetor, 63 - consul. As a consul, he suppressed the anti-Senate conspiracy of Catiline, receiving in the form of recognition of his merits the honorary title of Father of the Fatherland (for the first time in the history of Rome, not awarded for military exploits). In 50-51 - governor of the province of Cilicia in Asia Minor.
Since 81 and throughout his life, he has delivered political and judicial speeches with unchanged success, gaining a reputation as the greatest orator of his time. The most famous speeches can be named: “In defense of Roscius from Ameria” (80), speeches against Verres (70), “In defense of the poet Archia” (62), four speeches against Catiline (63), “On the answer haruspiks "," On the consular provinces ", in defense of Sestius (all three - 56), thirteen speeches against Mark Antony (the so-called Philippi) - 44 and 43.
Since the mid-50s. Cicero is more and more immersed in the theory of state and law and the theory of eloquence: "On the state" (53), "On the orator" (52), "On laws" (52). After the civil war 49-47 (Cicero joined the Senate party of Gnaeus Pompey) and the establishment of the dictatorship of Caesar, Cicero until the end of 44 lives mainly outside Rome in his rural villas. These years are characterized by a special rise in the creative activity of Cicero. In addition to continuing to work on the theory and history of eloquence ("Brutus", "Orator", "On the best kind of orators", all three - 46), he creates the main works on philosophy, among which the most important and famous are "Hortensius" (45 BC). ; preserved in numerous extracts and excerpts), "Teachings of Academicians" and "Tuskulan Conversations" (all - 45); the year 44 includes two works of a special genre - "Cato, or About Old Age" and "Lelius, or About Friendship", where Cicero created idealized and on the verge of an artistic image images of the spiritually close great Romans of the previous century - Cato Censorius, Scipio Emiliana, Gaya Lelia.
In March 44 was killed; in December, Cicero returns to Rome to try to convince the Senate to defend the republican system from the heirs of Caesar's dictatorship - the triumvirs of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus. His speeches and actions were unsuccessful. At Antony's insistence, his name was included in the proscription lists, and on December 7, 43 Cicero was killed.
The main problems of creativity
The origin from a small Italian municipality, where the Tulliev clan was rooted from time immemorial, was the biographical basis for the doctrine of "two motherlands" developed by Cicero in the treatises "On the Orator" (I, 44) and "On Laws" (II, 5): every Roman citizen has two homelands - by place of birth and by citizenship, and "the homeland that brought us into the world is no less dear to us than the one that adopted us." Here the capital fact of the history and culture of the ancient world was reflected: no matter how extensive the later state formations, monarchies or empires were, the socially and psychologically real initial cell of social life remained the city-state - the civil community, which continued to live within them ("On Duties" I, 53). Therefore, the Republic of Rome, which by the time of Cicero had covered vast territories, was not exhausted for him by its military-political and state-legal content. He saw in it a form of life, an intensely experienced immediate value, and he considered it the basis of the solidarity of citizens, the ability of everyone, having understood the interests of the community and the state, to act in accordance with them. The whole point was to properly explain these interests to them, prove and convince them by the power of words - eloquence was for Cicero a form of spiritual self-realization, a guarantee of the social dignity of a citizen, the political and spiritual greatness of Rome (Brutus, 1-2; 7).
Two paths led to the heights of eloquence. One consisted in serving the state with words and its interests on the basis of selfless devotion to them, civic valor (virtus) and extensive knowledge of politics, law, philosophy (On finding material I, 2; On speaker III, 76); another way consisted in mastering the formal techniques that allowed the speaker to persuade any audience to make the decision he needed (On Finding Material I, 2-5; On Speaker 158; Speech in Defense of Cluence 139); art of this latter kind was designated in Rome by the Greek term rhetoric in origin. Cicero's desire to combine in teaching the orator, as in any teaching in general, high spiritual content with practical methods ensured him an important place in the theory and history of pedagogy. However, in the specific conditions of Ancient Rome, both of these sides of the matter became less and less compatible: the crisis of the republic in the 1st century, which led to its replacement by the empire, was precisely the fact that its political practice was increasingly focused on the interests of only the ruling elite of the city of Rome and came into an increasingly acute conflict with the interests of the development of the state as a whole and with its conservative system of values. The moral perspective, on the one hand, and the provision of immediate interests, whether it be the state leadership, the client in court or one's own, on the other, were in constant and deepening contradiction, and the unity of virtus and political - even broader: life - practice was increasingly revealed as trait not real, but ideal Rome, as its artistic and philosophical image.
All the key points in the activity of Cicero and his work, as well as the perception of him in subsequent centuries, are associated with this contradiction.
The moral code of the Roman Republic was based on conservative fidelity to the traditions of the community, on the rule of law and right and respect for the success achieved on their basis. Cicero strove to be faithful to this system of norms and, as a statesman and orator, he followed it many times. But faithful to the code of the senate nobility, which increasingly strived - and with great success - to use this code to their advantage, Cicero just as often turned to purely rhetorical methods and made speeches in defense of not moral norms, but benefits: see agreement to speak in two years before the conspiracy of Catiline in his own defense, speech in defense of the indisputably criminal Gaius Rabirius or Annius Milo, etc. This inconsistency was blamed on him and was considered his fundamental feature by the humanists of the Renaissance and learned historians of the 19th century (T. Mommsen and his school).
Against the background of the practical activities of a politician and a judicial orator in Cicero, the need to overcome this fundamental contradiction lived and grew. One of the ways for Cicero was the constant enrichment of his theory of eloquence with Greek philosophy, and the Roman tradition and the system of values \u200b\u200bin general with the spiritual experience of Hellas. He lived three times for a long time in Greece, translated a lot from Greek, constantly refers to Greek thinkers, calls "our deity" (Letters to Atticus IV, 16), sees the dignity of the Roman magistrate in his ability to be guided in his activities by the practical interests of the Senate republic, but in at the same time philosophy (letter to Cato, January 50), “and since the meaning and teaching of all sciences that show a person the right path in life is contained in the mastery of that wisdom, which the Greeks call philosophy, then I thought it necessary to present it in Latin ”(Tuskulan conversations I, 1). The content of the works of Cicero in the 40s. politics and eloquence of a special kind are becoming - saturated with philosophy and law, there are images of Rome and the Romans of the past, summing up the spiritual traditions of Greco-Roman antiquity in an idealized form. During the years of the civil war and the dictatorship, this ideological position was finally revealed as a cultural norm independent of life practice (Letters to Atticus IX, 4, 1 and 3; "Cato" 85; "Lelius" 99 and 16), but called to live in it and correct it. This side of the thought and activity of Cicero became in the 20th century. basis in the assessment and study of his legacy (after the appearance of a collective article about him in the "Real Encyclopedia for the Study of Classical Antiquity" by Pauli-Vissov (1939) and the works based on it.
Mark Tullius Cicero, the famous orator of antiquity, personifies, along with Demosthenes, the highest stage of oratory.
Cicero lived from 106 to 43 BC. e. He was born in Arpina, southeast of Rome, from the equestrian class. Cicero received an excellent education, studied Greek poets, was interested in Greek literature. In Rome, he studied eloquence from the famous orators Anthony and Crassus, listened to and commented on the famous tribune Sulpicius who spoke at the forum, and studied the theory of eloquence. The orator needed to know Roman law, and Cicero learned it from the popular lawyer of the time, Scevola. Knowing well the Greek language, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy thanks to his closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus, the Stoic Diodorus and the head of the new academic school Philo. He also taught him dialectics - the art of argument and argumentation.
Although Cicero did not adhere to a certain philosophical system, in many of his works he expounds views close to Stoicism. From this point of view, in the second part of the treatise "On the State" he considers the best statesman, who must possess all the qualities of a highly moral person. Only he could improve morals and prevent the death of the state. Cicero's views on a better political system are set forth in the first part of this treatise. The author comes to the conclusion that the best state system existed in the Roman Republic before the reform of the Gracchi, when the monarchy was carried out in the person of two consuls, the power of the aristocracy in the person of the Senate, and democracy in the person of the assembly.
For a better state, Cicero considers it correct to establish ancient laws, to revive the "custom of the ancestors" (treatise "On Laws").
Cicero also expresses his protest against tyranny in a number of works in which questions of ethics prevail: such are his treatises "On Friendship", "On Duties"; in the latter, he condemns Caesar, directly calling him a tyrant. He wrote treatises "On the limits of good and evil", "Tuskulan conversations", "On the nature of the gods." Cicero does not reject or affirm the existence of gods, at the same time recognizes the need for a state religion; he resolutely rejects all miracles and fortune-telling (treatise "On Fortune-telling").
For Cicero, questions of philosophy were of an applied nature and were considered by him depending on their practical significance in the field of ethics and politics.
Considering the horsemen the "support" of all classes, Cicero did not have a definite political platform. He strove first to gain the favor of the people, and then went over to the side of the optimates and recognized the state basis of the alliance of horsemen with the nobility and the senate.
His political activities can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: “Let you have confidence that the Senate regards you according to how you lived before, and looks at you as a defender of his authority, Roman horsemen and rich people based on your past life. they see you as an adherent of order and tranquility, while the majority, since your speeches in the courts and at gatherings showed you half-polar, let them think that you will act in his interests. "
The first speech that has come down to us (81) "In Defense of Quinctius", on the return of illegally seized property to him, brought Cicero success. In it, he adhered to the Asian style for which his rival Hortensius was known. He achieved even greater success with his speech "In Defense of Roscius Ameripsky". Defending Roscius, whom his relatives accused of killing his own father for mercenary purposes, Cicero spoke out against the violence of the Sullan regime, exposing the dark actions of Sulla's favorite, Cornelius Chrysogon, with the help of which the relatives wanted to take possession of the property of the murdered. Cicero won this process and achieved popularity among the people by his opposition to the aristocracy.
Fearing reprisals from Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and the island of Rhodes, ostensibly in view of the need to study philosophy and oratory more deeply. There he listened to the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, who influenced the style of Cicero. From this time on, Cicero began to adhere to the "average" style of eloquence, which occupied the middle between the Asian and moderate Attic styles.
Brilliant education, oratorical talent, a successful beginning of the legal profession gave Cicero access to public office. The reaction against the aristocracy after Sulla's death in 78 aided him in this. He took the first state post of quaestor in Western Sicily in 76. Having gained the confidence of the Sicilians by his actions, Cicero defended their interests against the governor of Sicily, the propraetor Verres, who, using uncontrolled power, plundered the province. Speeches against Verres had political significance, since in essence Cicero opposed the oligarchy of the optimates and defeated them, despite the fact that the judges belonged to the senatorial estate and the famous Hortensius was the defender of Verres.
In 66, Cicero was elected praetor; he delivers a speech "On the appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as commander" (or "In defense of the law of Manilius"). Cicero supported the Manilius bill granting unlimited power to fight Mithridates Gnaeus Pompey, whom he praises immoderately.
This speech, defending the interests of money people and directed against the beating, was a great success. But this speech ends with Cicero's speeches against the Senate and the Optimates.
Meanwhile, the Democratic Party intensified its demands for radical reforms (cassation of debts, allotting land to the poor). This met with clear opposition from Cicero, who in his speeches sharply opposed the agrarian bill, introduced by the young tribune Rull, on the purchase of land in Italy and its settlement by poor citizens.
When Cicero was elected consul in 63, he reinstated the senators and equestrians against agrarian reforms. In the second agrarian speech, Cicero speaks sharply about the representatives of the democracy, calling them troublemakers and rebels, threatening that he will make them so meek that they themselves will be surprised. Opposing the interests of the poor, Cicero stigmatizes their leader Lucius Sergius Catiline, around whom the people who suffered from the economic crisis and the Senate arbitrariness were grouped. Catiline, like Cicero, put forward his candidacy for consulship in 63, but despite all the efforts of the left wing of the democratic group to get Catiline into consulship, he did not succeed due to opposition from the optimists. Catiline made a conspiracy, the purpose of which was an armed uprising and the assassination of Cicero. The conspirators' plans became known to Cicero through a well-organized espionage.
In his four speeches against Catiline, Cicero ascribes to his adversary all kinds of vices and the most heinous goals, such as the desire to burn Rome and destroy all honest citizens.
Catiline left Rome and with a small detachment, surrounded by government troops, died in a battle near Pistoria in 62. The leaders of the radical movement were arrested and, after an illegal trial, they were strangled in prison by order of Cicero.
Currying favor with the Senate, Cicero in his speeches carries out the slogan of the union of senators and equestrians.
It goes without saying that the reactionary part of the Senate approved of Cicero's actions to suppress the Catiline conspiracy and bestowed upon him the title of "father of the fatherland."
The activities of Catiline are tendentiously illuminated by the Roman historian Sallust. Meanwhile, Cicero himself, in his speech for Murepa (XXV), quotes the following remarkable statement by Catiline: “Only he who is unhappy himself can be a faithful protector of the unfortunate; but believe, the afflicted and the disadvantaged, the promises of both the prosperous and the happy ... the least timid and most affected is who should be called the leader and standard-bearer of the oppressed. "
Cicero's cruel reprisal against the supporters of Catiline caused displeasure, the popular. With the formation of the first triumvirate, which included Pompeii, Caesar and Krasé, Cicero, at the request of the tribune of the people, Clodius, was forced to go into exile in 58.
In 57, Cicero returned to Rome, but no longer had the former political influence and was mainly engaged in literary work.
His speeches in defense of the tribune of the people Sestius, in defense of Milop belong to this time. At the same time, Cicero wrote the famous treatise On the Orator. As a proconsul in Cilicia, Asia Minor (51-50), Cicero gained popularity in the army, especially thanks to the victory over several hill tribes. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor (supreme military commander). Upon his return to Rome at the end of 50, Cicero joined Pompey, but after his defeat at Pharsalus (48), he refused to participate in the struggle and outwardly made peace with Caesar. He took up issues of oratory, publishing the treatises "Orator", "Brutus", and the popularization of Greek philosophy in the field of practical morality.
After the assassination of Caesar by Brutus (44), Cicero again returned to the ranks of active leaders, speaking on the side of the Senate party, supporting Octavian in the fight against Antony. With great harshness and passion, he wrote 14 speeches against Antony, which, in imitation of Demosthenes, are called "Philippines." For them, he was included in the proscription list and in 43 BC. e. killed.
Cicero left works on the theory and history of oratory, philosophical treatises, 774 letters and 58 judicial and political speeches. Among them, as an expression of Cicero's views on poetry, a special place is occupied by the speech in defense of the Greek poet Archias, who appropriated Roman citizenship to himself. Exalting Archia as a poet, Cicero recognized the harmonious combination of natural talent and diligent, patient work.
Cicero's literary legacy not only gives a clear idea of \u200b\u200bhis life and work, often not always principled and full of compromises, but also paints historical pictures of the turbulent era of the civil war in Rome.
Language and style of speeches of Cicero. For a political and especially a judicial speaker, it was important not so much to truthfully illuminate the essence of the case, but to present it in such a way that the judges and the public surrounding the judicial tribunal believed in its truth. The attitude of the public to the orator's speech was considered as the voice of the people and could not but put pressure on the decision of the judges. Therefore, the outcome of the case depended almost exclusively on the skill of the orator. The speeches of Cicero, although they were built according to the scheme of traditional antique rhetoric, give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe methods with which he achieved success.
Cicero himself notes in his speeches "an abundance of thoughts and words", in most cases stemming from the orator's desire to divert the attention of judges from unfavorable facts, to focus it only on circumstances useful for the success of the case, to give them the necessary coverage. In this regard, the story was of great importance for the trial, which was confirmed by tendentious argumentation, often a distortion of testimony. The story was interwoven with dramatic epidemics, images that give the speeches an artistic form.
In a speech against Verres, Cicero tells of the execution of the Roman citizen Gavius, whom they had no right to punish without trial. He was flogged on the square with rods, and he, without uttering a single groan, only repeated: "I am a Roman citizen!" Indignant at the arbitrariness, Cicero exclaims: “O sweet name of freedom! About the exclusive right associated with our citizenship! O tribunal power, which the Roman plebes so badly desired and which was finally returned to him! " These pathetic exclamations reinforced the drama of the story.
Cicero uses this method of varying the style, but rarely. The pathetic tone is replaced by a simple one, the seriousness of the presentation is a joke, a mockery.
Recognizing that "the orator should exaggerate the fact," Cicero in his speeches considers amplification, a method of exaggeration, to be natural. So, in a speech against Catiline, Cicero claims that Catiline was going to set fire to Rome from 12 sides and, patronizing the bandits, to destroy all honest people. Cicero was not shy of theatrical receptions, which caused his opponents to accuse him of insincerity, of false tearfulness. Wanting to arouse pity for the accused in a speech in defense of Milo, he himself says that "from tears he cannot speak," and in another case (a speech in defense of Flaccus) he raised a child, Flaccus's son, in his arms, and with tears asked the judges to spare his father ...
The application of these techniques in accordance with the content of the speeches creates a special oratory style. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of the common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. Sometimes speech consists of short simple sentences, sometimes they are replaced by exclamations, rhetorical questions and long periods, in the construction of which Cicero followed Demosthenes. They are divided into parts, usually having a metric shape and a sonorous ending of the period. This gives the impression of rhythmic prose.
Rhetorical works. In theoretical works on eloquence, Cicero summarized the principles, rules and techniques that he followed in his practical activities. Known for his treatises "On the orator" (55), "Brutus" (46) and "Orator" (46).
The work "About the orator" in three books is a dialogue between two famous orators, predecessors of Cicero-Licinne Crassus and Mark Antony, representatives of the Senate party. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that only a versatile educated person can be an orator. In such an orator, Cicero sees a politician, the savior of the state in the troubled times of civil wars.
In the same treatise, Cicero deals with the structure and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to the language, the rhythm and frequency of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, with facial expressions, gestures, achieves an impact on the soul of the audience.
In the treatise Brutus, dedicated to his friend Brutus, Cicero talks about the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, dwelling in more detail on the latter. The content of this work is revealed in its other title - "About the famous orators". This treatise received great importance during the Renaissance. Its purpose is to prove the superiority of the Roman speakers over the Greek ones.
Cicero believes that the simplicity of the Greek orator Lysias is not enough - this simplicity must be complemented by the sublimity and power of Demosthenes' expression. Describing many speakers, he considers himself an outstanding Roman orator.
Finally, in the treatise "The Orator", Cicero expounds his opinion on the use of different styles depending on the content of speech, in order to convince the audience, to impress with the grace and beauty of speech, and, finally, to captivate and excite with sublimity. Much attention is paid to the periodization of speech, the theory of rhythm is presented in detail, especially in the endings of the members of the period.
The orator's works that have come down to us are of exceptional historical and cultural value. Already in the Middle Ages, and especially during the Renaissance, experts were interested in the rhetorical and philosophical writings of Cicero, according to the latter they got acquainted with the Greek philosophical schools. The humanists especially appreciated the style of Cicero.
A brilliant stylist who knows how to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose. During the Enlightenment, Cicero's rationalistic philosophical views influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu, who wrote the treatise The Spirit of Laws.
Mark Tullius Cicero (born January 3, 106 BC - death December 7, 43 BC) - Ancient Roman politician, orator, philosopher, consul.
Childhood and youth
Mark Tullius Cicero was born on January 3 in an estate near Arpin. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Cicero received a good education under the guidance of his parents. Then his father brought him and his younger brother Quintus to Rome, where he had his own home, and sent him to study at a public school with the best Greek teachers. At that time, the Greek poet Archias lived in Rome, who was engaged in explaining the works of Greek poetry to the wealthy Romans.
Cicero's father was not afraid of the costs to entrust his promising son to this mentor, and the 15-year-old boy was so much addicted to poetry that he tried his hand at it, not without success. His youthful poems were experiments that led Cicero to his real vocation - eloquence, in which he later distinguished himself with such extraordinary art.
At the age of 16, according to Roman custom, a child's dress was publicly removed from Cicero, and he was dressed in a man's toga. During this celebration, he was accompanied by all the friends and clients of the family to the forum, and from there to the Capitol, where they received a solemn dedication. From that time on, Cicero began to take care of acquiring the knowledge that is necessary for holding public office.
Training
Such sciences included eloquence and a comprehensive knowledge of government and Roman law. Roman law Cicero studied under the guidance of remarkable experts, both Scovolus, an augur and a priest, listening to their conversations with great attention. At the same time, he engaged in rhetorical exercises with great zeal. Every day, Cicero read, wrote or translated something and, if he got acquainted with any wonderful work, then each time he repeated aloud the entire content and order of development of the main idea of \u200b\u200bthe book or in front of himself, and even more often before a meeting of his friends; this he did until very old age.
This kind of intensive training was interrupted only for a very short time, when Cicero in 89 took part in a campaign during the Allied War. At the end of the campaign, Cicero immediately resumed his scholarly pursuits and paid particular attention to philosophy. Philosophy was first taught to Cicero by the epicurean Phaedrus, then by the academician Philo, and finally by the Stoic Diodotus. Cicero studied the works of the great Greek philosophers and tried to assimilate their views on the gods and the world, on the purpose of man, on the essence of the soul, on truth and justice, on virtues and vices, on laws, manners and customs, on government institutions and education.
He was engaged in comparing their teachings with each other, entered into conversations about the subjects studied with experienced people and listened to their explanations of many difficult places in the works of other writers. Thanks to this method, Cicero soon acquired the art of speaking gracefully and coherently for hours on end, without preparing his speeches in advance. He did not interrupt his written studies and thus at the same time was able to achieve a wonderful art both in written and in oral presentation of his thoughts.
In order to practically prepare for eloquence classes, Cicero came to court sessions every day, where he could listen to accusatory and defense speeches. He chose the famous lawyer Hortense as a model in judicial eloquence. After such preparation, Marcus Tullius Cicero decided in the end to appear himself in public as a defender. 
He advocated a certain Roscius from Ameria. He was accused of parricide, and everyone knew that the accusers were hiding the favorite of Sulla Chrysogon, who bought the property of the murdered for a pittance. Cicero in his speech was not afraid to brand the all-powerful Chrysogon, and the young man was acquitted. Fearing persecution from Sulla, the young orator went with his brother to Greece and Asia Minor. Here he saw the sights of famous cities, visited the most famous, orators and philosophers, spent six months in Athens and daily practiced with the most skillful and experienced Greek teachers in philosophical conversations and ordinary conversations; at the same time he learned to speak Greek so well that a stranger was hardly noticed in him.
There, Cicero made a lifelong friendship with the Roman horseman Titus Pomponius, who for many years studied sciences in Athens and had the nickname Attica. On the way back, Cicero visited the island of Rhodes. There he was awarded the greatest praise for his art. At that time one of the famous teachers of eloquence, Molon, lived in Rhodes.
Cicero began attending his school. When he arrived, the teacher gave him a topic for speech without prior preparation. Cicero immediately began to speak and, in presenting and developing the topic, expressed such an abundance of thoughts, such a rare grace of expression and such a noble smoothness and euphoniousness of speech that when he finished, the audience resounded with loud applause. Only Molon remained to sit silently in his chair, and this worried the young speaker. But when one of the disciples asked Molon about the reason for his silence, he answered: “You have grieved me greatly, Cicero; your ancestors took away our freedom, property and power, but left us the glory of art and intelligence. You are taking this glory with you across the sea. "
The beginning of a political career
Meanwhile, Sulla died. Cicero returned to Rome and began to practice law until he reached the much desired 31, the age when, according to Roman law, he received the right to seek the title of quaestor, the lowest public office. In order for the people to get acquainted with the candidates, these candidates for some time walked among the people, greeted each citizen in his name (while using the services of slaves who knew all citizens in the face) and in a friendly shake of the hand asked to vote for them on election day. They wore a white toga, which was called "toga candida", hence the name "candidate", which has survived to this day.
Cicero, who had long been loved for his speeches, was chosen by an overwhelming majority to one of the 20 Quaestor positions that were handed out every year. Each proconsul and each praetor received such a quaestor in his province, and Sicily fell by lot to Cicero (in 76 BC). With his disinterestedness, justice and courteous treatment, Cicero earned such a general disposition there that when the city of Sicily departed, they elected him as their patron (patron) in Rome.
Only upon reaching the age of 36 was it possible to obtain the next public position - the title of aedile. Until this time, Cicero was engaged in the conduct of court cases. The most famous of these was the case against Verres. This Verres, as a praetor, for 3 years robbed Sicily: he took out statues from churches, expensive paintings and carpets from private houses, took bribes at every opportunity. The Sicilians turned to Cicero as their patron, with a complaint about Verres. Cicero made a fiery and convincing speech in court, and Verres, despite the fact that Hortensius himself was his lawyer, was forced to retire into exile.
In 69, Cicero was elected an aedile. Those who held this position were obliged to observe buildings, streets, markets, public games. Supervising the games was a rather costly responsibility. In addition to government spending on performances, the aediles had to spend their own funds. The aediles used this circumstance to gain popularity for themselves. The people took this into consideration, and subsequently the aediles were rewarded either by the appointment to higher positions, or by the provision of wealthy governorships to the administration. At these expenses, Cicero stuck to the middle between extravagance and avarice, and during the year of his correction of the aedile post he was able to earn the love and respect of his fellow citizens.
Mark Tullius Cicero makes a speech in the Senate
Then Cicero had to wait another 2 years again before getting the right to seek the next post - praetor. At that time there were 8 praetors, they were the presidents of the courts and by their rank occupied the first place after the consuls. In this judicial office, Cicero had the opportunity to show in the best light both his justice and his knowledge of the laws. The universal approval he earned in this position increased his fame and made his way to the consulate easier. He devoted all his free hours to defending his friends when they were accused in the courts of other praetors, daily exercises in eloquence, conducting extensive correspondence and listening to famous Greek orators who periodically visited Rome and gave their lectures here.
Finally, Mark Tullius Cicero reached the age of 43, before which no one could have been a consul. Already a year earlier, Cicero, in a white toga, began to tirelessly rotate among the citizens, tried to win the favor of the most influential of them, and mainly was able to win over Crassus, Pompey and Caesar, these three powerful persons of that era, to his side.
On election day, happiness favored Cicero, and he was elected on the very first ballot in 63 BC.
“At the same time, he uncovered a conspiracy aimed at assassinating himself, as well as overthrowing the Republic with the help of a foreign army led by Lucius Sergei Catiline. Cicero achieves a declaration of martial law, and expelled Catiline from the city with four passionate speeches, which are still the best examples of his rhetorical style.
Catiline fled and began calling for a coup d'état, but Cicero was able to force him and his supporters to publicly confess their guilt before the Senate. The conspirators were executed without any trial, and this will torment Cicero for many years.
End of Cicero's political career
60 BC - Cicero rejected the offer to join the First Triumvirate, which at that time included Julius Caesar, Pompey and Mark Licinius Crassus, because the orator was confident that the Triumvirate would undermine the foundations of the Republic.
58 BC - Publius Clodius Pulcher, tribune of the people, issued a law that threatened to exile anyone who would kill a Roman inhabitant without trial. Therefore, Cicero is exiled to the Greek Tressalonica. Thanks to the intervention of the newly elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, Cicero is returned from exile.
57 BC - the speaker returned to Italy. Cicero is no longer allowed to engage in political activities, so he took up philosophy.
Between 55 and 51 BC. he wrote treatises "On oratory", "On the state" and "On the laws."
After the death of Crassus, the Triumvirate disintegrated, and in 49 BC. Caesar with his army crossed the Rubicon River, invaded Italy. Here begins a civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Cicero, though reluctantly, supported. Unfortunately, in 48 BC. Caesar's troops were victorious, and he became the first Roman emperor. He granted pardon to Cicero, but did not even allow him to get involved in political life.
Death of Cicero
44 BC - in the March ides, as a result of a conspiracy of a group of senators,. And again the struggle for power began, the key figures in which were Mark Antony, Mark Lepidus and Octavian.
Cicero makes speeches, "philippics", named after the Greek orator Demosthenes, who called on the inhabitants of Athens to revolt against Philip of Macedon and urged the Senate to support Octavian in his struggle by forgiving Mark Antony. But Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian came to an agreement to share power among themselves, which implies that each of them will give out the names of their likely opponents.
Cicero tried to flee to Italy - but unfortunately too late.
Mark Tullius Cicero was killed on December 7, 43 BC. e. on the orders of Mark Antony, while trying to escape to Italy.
CICERO
CICERON, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), Rome. polit. activist, speaker and writer. Supporter of the rep. building. From Op. 58 courts survived. and polit. speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy and over 800 letters. Op. Ts. - a source of information about the era of civil. wars in Rome.
The Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2012
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Data: 2009-09-11 Time: 12:07:21 Navigation Topic \u003d Cicero Wikipedia \u003d Cicero Wikisource \u003d Cicero Wikimedia Commons \u003d Cicero Wiktionary \u003d Category: Quotes / Cicero ... - CICERO in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
(Cicero) Mark Tullius (106-43 BC) - Roman politician, philosopher, orator. Roman aedile (69), praetor (66), consul (63). Killed by political ... - CICERO in the Sayings of Great People:
To live is to think. Cicero - If there is anything honorable, it is the wholeness of all life. Cicero - Nature did not give ... - CICERO in the Dictionary of Generals:
(lat. Cicero) Mark Tullius (106-43 BC), an outstanding Rome. speaker, writer. He was elected quaestor, praetor, consul. Joined Pompey, but was ... - CICERO in the Dictionary-Directory Who's Who in the Ancient World:
Mark Tullius (106-43 BC) "New Man" from Arpina, Cicero was educated in Rome and Athens. He quickly became the greatest ... - CICERO in ancient literature:
(Cicero), Mark Tullius (106 - 43 BC) - Roman orator, writer and politician, ideological and literary opponent ... - CICERO
(Cicero) Marcus Tullius (106-43 BC) Roman politician, orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the works, 58 have survived ... - CICERO in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(M. Tullius Cicero) - Roman orator, philosopher and statesman. Both for internal reasons (the versatility of his abilities and activities), so ... - CICERO in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
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(Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 - 43 BC), Roman orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the works, 58 have survived ... - CICERO in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
(M. Tullius Cicero)? Roman orator, philosopher and statesman. Both for internal reasons (the versatility of his abilities and activities), so ... - CICERO in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
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(Cicero) Marcus Tullius (106-43 BC), Roman politician, orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the works, 58 have survived ... - CICERO
m. A person who is too eloquent or speaks too much (usually with a touch of irony or censure) ... - CICERO in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
m. 1. Ancient Roman orator Cicero (106 - 43 BC). 2. Used as a poetic symbol ... - CICERON, MARK TULLIUS in the Brief Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities:
(Cicero,?. Tullius). Greatest Roman speaker, genus. January 3, 106 BC Educated by the best Roman teachers, ... - CICERON MARK TULLIUS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Marcus Tullius Cicero) (January 3, 106 Arpinum - December 7, 43 BC, near Cayeta, now Gaeta), Roman orator, ... - CICERON, MARK TULLIUS: CREATIVITY in Collier's Dictionary.
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Back to article CICERON, MARK TULLIUS Cicero was born in Arpina, a small town about 100 km east of Rome, 3 ... - LATIN ADVANCES in the Wiki Quote.
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Roman emperor 49-44 BC The founder is Yuliev-Klavdiev. Rod. OK. 100 BC He died on March 15, 44 ...
Mark Tullius Cicero is an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, and writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born 106 BC BC, January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that the sons could get a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. Natural talent for eloquence and diligent studies were not in vain: Cicero's oratory skills did not go unnoticed.
His first public appearance was in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. This could have been followed by persecution, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome, began to act as a defender at the trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected a quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he won great authority among the local population, but this practically did not affect his reputation in Rome.
Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a loud process, the so-called the Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, and after another 3 years - praetor. The first speech of a purely political content belongs to this period. In it, he supported the law of one of the tribunes of the people, who sought to ensure that Pompey in the war with Mithridates received extraordinary powers.
Another milestone in the political biography of Cicero was his election in 63 BC. e. consul. His rival in the elections was Katilina, who was determined to revolutionize and therefore in many ways a loser. While in this position, Cicero opposed the bill, which proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for this purpose. To win the election of 62 BC,. Catiline plotted a conspiracy that was successfully uncovered by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against a rival are considered examples of the art of eloquence. Catiline fled, and the other conspirators were executed. The influence of Cicero, his fame at this time reached a climax, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his tendency to self-glorification, the constant recollection of merits in uncovering the Catiline conspiracy aroused in many citizens dislike and even hatred in many citizens.
During the so-called. of the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to take the side of the allies and remained faithful to the republican ideals. One of his opponents, the tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned down, and his property was confiscated. At this time, he had thoughts of suicide more than once, but soon Pompey made sure that Cicero was returned from exile.
Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, preferring literature and legal practice. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue "About the speaker" appears, a year later he begins to work on the work "About the State". During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a conciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but the coming of any of them to power was considered a disastrous outcome for the state. Taking the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC), he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not ready to come to terms with the dictatorship, delved into the works and translations, and in his creative biography this time turned out to be the most eventful.
In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero sided with the second, seeing in him an easier object for influence. The 14 speeches made against Anthony went down in history as philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the lists of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Cayeta.
The orator's creative legacy has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, and more than 800 letters. All of his writings are a valuable source of information on several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.