Paragraph 4 First World War 1914 1918. Important dates and events of the First World War
Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
The Russian Empire was the largest country in the world in territorial terms. Among the industrial regions, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Riga, Lodz, South Russian, Ural and others stood out. Intensive development of Siberia and the Far East began (Krasnoyarsk region, Novonikolaevsky (Novosibirsk) and Vladivostok regions.
Agriculture predominated in most regions of Russia. In the Central region there was not enough land, but beyond the Urals there was plenty of it.
The formation of Russia as an imperial state continued until 1914. Incorporated into the Russian state in 14. Tuva entered. The entry of various states into Russia was motivated by many reasons: sometimes because of ethnic ties, sometimes for the sake of salvation from conquest. In the west, Russia included the Baltic states and Finland. In Finland, the parliament, legislation, and currency were preserved. The Baltic states have preserved their culture. About 2,000,000 ethnic Germans lived in Russia itself.
The leading religious movement in Russia was Orthodoxy, although the Old Believers were also preserved in many places. In the Baltics, Poland and Finland, Catholicism and Protestantism are common. In the Russian state, freedom of any religion was granted, but the orientation was still directed towards Orthodoxy.
The official language in Russia is Russian.
According to the main signs of the state of the population, the form of government in Russia was an empire. It united peoples at different stages of development.
Noble class. More than half of the nobles considered Russian their native language. The nobles were the leading class. The nobility was divided into hereditary and personal.
The backbone of Russia was the clergy. It was divided into black (royal) and white (parish).
The urban population meant the commercial and industrial population. It was divided into honorary citizens, guild merchants, burghers, merchants, craftsmen and working people. The most widespread class in Russia was the peasant class (more than 80% of the population).
The Cossacks played an important role in Russia, numbering 11 Cossack troops. Cossacks carried out public service (service duration was 20 years), for which they were given a land share. The Cossacks were one of the important pillars of the state.
Under the influence of developing bourgeois relations, dangerous cracks appear in the edifice of the Empire.
The autocratic monarchy had patriarchal illumination, the emperor was considered God's anointed. In the structure of royal rule, the tsar is the head of the Russian church. All members of the royal family must be Orthodox.
The advisory body was the State Council. The task of the State Council is to provide the emperor with opinions on legislative issues. If the State Council did not come to a consensus, the monarch had the right to make decisions, guided by the right of the majority. Direct power belonged to the ministries: the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Navy, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Education (at the beginning of the 20th century there were 430,000 officials in Russia). Low salaries of officials contributed to widespread bribery and corruption.
The judicial structure was based on the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century. The judicial process was characterized by competition and democracy. But in the end, the guilt of the defendant was determined not by the court, but by officials.
The main state institution was the army, which by that time numbered 900,000 people. Russia had a system of universal military conscription. Illiterate people in the army were taught to read and write.
Cities had City Dumas and Zemstvos. In rural areas, issues were resolved by Peace.
The supreme power tried to protect the foundations of the Russian Empire - a powerful international political system.
During the reign of Alexander II, Russia did not wage wars. Nicholas II, ascending the throne, promised to follow this promise, but in 14. Russia takes part in the First World War. The Russian state was looking for allies. Little by little, military blocs begin to be created in Europe: Russia with France (then England joins this alliance) and the future Triple Alliance consisting of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
In the early years of the 20th century, Russia's interests were mostly directed towards Siberia and the Far East. In 1891 The creation of the Siberian Railway begins. The purpose of creating this road is the possibility of transferring troops to the Far East to protect the Amur region and other regions. The route to China compared to the route through the Suez Canal was reduced by 2.5 times after the construction of the Siberian Railway.
Russia sought to achieve economic conquest of China. In 1898 Russia leases Port Arthur from China. Russian troops, under an agreement with China, began to be stationed in Manchuria.
The Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century.
Russia was an agrarian-industrial country. The reforms of the 60s cleared the way for rapid bourgeois development. The first banks appear in Russia. Russia is embarking on the path of industrial and market modernization. Industrial production increased 7 times.
The ruble is stabilizing. The result of the famous Witte-Cooper reform was that in 1914. The ruble is accepted in all banks in the world. This has made Russia an attractive target for foreign investment.
In the first years of the 20th century, large monopolies appeared in Russia. At the end of the 19th century, a wine monopoly was introduced, which brought the treasury an additional 100,000,000 rubles of income per year. The grain yield in Russia reached 39 poods per tithe.
There were about 100,000 landowner farms in Russia. The new class in Russia that declared itself was the bourgeois class.
In preparing this work, materials from the studentu website were used
About the First World War in brief 1914 - 1918
The First World War, in short, represents one of the largest and most difficult military conflicts of the 20th century.
Causes of military conflict
To understand the causes of the First World War, we need to briefly consider the balance of power in Europe. By the 19th century, three major world powers - the Russian Empire, Great Britain and England had already divided spheres of influence among themselves. Until a certain point, Germany did not strive for a dominant position in Europe; it was more concerned with its economic growth.
But everything changed at the end of the 19th century. Having strengthened economically and militarily, Germany began to urgently need new living space for its growing population and markets for its goods. Colonies were needed, which Germany did not have. To achieve this, it was necessary to begin a new redivision of the world by defeating the allied bloc of three powers - England, Russia and France.
By the end of the 19th century, Germany's aggressive plans became completely clear to its neighbors. In response to the German threat, the Entente alliance was created, consisting of Russia, France and England, which joined them.
In addition to Germany's desire to win living space and colonies, there were other reasons for the First World War. This issue is so complex that there is still no single point of view on this matter. Each of the main countries participating in the conflict puts forward its own reasons.
The First World War, in short, began due to irreconcilable differences between the countries of the Entente and the Central Alliance, primarily between Great Britain and Germany. Other states also had their own claims against each other.
Another reason for the war is the choice of the path of development of society. And here again two points of view collided - Western European and Central-South European.
Could the war have been avoided? All sources unanimously say that it is possible if the leadership of the countries participating in the conflict really wanted this. Germany was most interested in the war, for which it was fully prepared, and made every effort to get it started.
Main participants
The war was fought between the two largest political blocs at that time - the Entente and the Central Bloc (formerly the Triple Alliance). The Entente included the Russian Empire, England and France. The central block consisted of the following countries: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy. The latter later joined the Entente, and the Triple Alliance included Bulgaria and Türkiye.
In total, 38 countries took part in the First World War, briefly speaking.
Reason for war
The beginning of the military conflict was associated with the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. The killer was a member of the Yugoslav revolutionary youth organization.
Beginning of the war 1914
This event was enough for Austria-Hungary to start a war with Serbia. At the beginning of July, the Austrian authorities announced that Serbia was behind the assassination of the Archduke and put forward an ultimatum that could not be fulfilled. Serbia, however, agrees to all of his conditions except one. Germany, which desperately needed war, stubbornly pushed Austria-Hungary to declare war. At this time, all three countries are mobilizing.
July 28, Austria-Hungary announces Serbia’s failure to comply with the terms of the ultimatum, begins shelling the capital and sends troops into its territory. Nicholas II calls in a telegram from William I for a peaceful resolution of the situation through the Hague Conference. The German authorities are silent in response.
On July 31, Germany announced an ultimatum to Russia and demanded an end to mobilization, and on August 1, an official declaration of war came.
It must be said that none of the participants in these events imagined that the war, which was planned to end within a few months, would drag on for more than 4 years.
Progress of the war
It is simpler and more convenient to divide the course of the war into five periods, according to the years during which it lasted.
1914 - military operations unfolded on the Western (France) and Eastern (Prussia, Russia) fronts, the Balkans and the colonies (Oceania, Africa and China). Germany quickly captured Belgium and Luxembourg, and launched an offensive against France. Russia led a successful offensive in Prussia. In general, in 1914, none of the countries managed to fully implement their plans.
1915 - Fierce fighting took place on the Western Front, where France and Germany desperately sought to turn the situation in their favor. On the Eastern Front, the situation changed for the worse for Russian troops. Due to supply problems, the army began to retreat, losing Galicia and Poland.
1916 - during this period, the bloodiest battle took place on the Western Front - Verdun, during which more than a million people died. Russia, trying to help the allies and draw back the forces of the German army, launched a successful counteroffensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.
1917 – success of the Entente troops. The USA joins them. Russia, as a result of revolutionary events, is actually leaving the war.
1918 – Russia concluded peace with Germany on extremely unfavorable and difficult terms. The remaining allies of Germany make peace with the Entente countries. Germany is left alone and in November 1918 agrees to surrender.
Results of the war 1918
Before World War II, this military conflict was the most widespread, affecting almost the entire globe. The shocking number of victims (taking into account the loss of military and civilian casualties, as well as the wounded) is about 80 million people. During the 5 years of war, empires such as the Ottoman, Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian collapsed.
Russia in the First World War If you need a quick recap of Russia's involvement in World War I, here it is!
In August 1914, Russia achieved success, but then the inconsistency of the armies, supply problems, betrayal and espionage led to defeats. By the end of 1915, Russia had lost the Baltic states, Poland, part of Ukraine and Belarus. In 1916, under the leadership of General Brusilov, a breakthrough was carried out on the Southwestern Front. More than 400 thousand enemies were killed, wounded and captured. Germany sent forces to help Austria-Hungary and saved it from disaster. On March 1, 1917, a general offensive of the Russian army was being prepared along the entire front line. But a week before this, the enemies staged a revolution in Petrograd. The offensive failed. The February Revolution destroyed all the army's victorious plans. Mass desertion began, soldiers did not obey orders, intelligence data was declassified. As a result, all offensives of the Russian army failed. There were many killed and captured. RESULTS: After October 1917, the Bolsheviks came to power. In March 1918, they concluded the “Brest-Litovsk Peace” with Germany, gave the western lands to Russia and stopped participating in the war. Russia lost the most: more than 6 million killed, wounded, and maimed. The main industrial areas were destroyed. The war in which we won ended in shame and a humiliating peace. This is what happens when people succumb to the provocations of their enemies.
1914 - 1918 – World War I. 38 states fought. More than 10 million were killed, more than 20 million were maimed and wounded.
CAUSES OF WAR:
1. Germany's desire for world domination.
2. France wanted to become the main country in Europe.
3. Great Britain wanted to prevent anyone from becoming stronger in Europe.
4. Russia wanted to protect the countries of Eastern Europe from aggression.
5. Strong contradictions between the countries of Europe and Asia in the struggle for spheres of influence.
Triple Alliance - military bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Entente (consent) – military bloc of Great Britain, France and Russia.
REASON for war: in the city of Sarajevo (Bosnia), one fanatic killed the Prince of Austria-Hungary. As a result, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Turkey and Bulgaria began to fight against the Entente countries.
PROGRESS OF THE WAR:
In August 1914 Russia achieved success, but then the inconsistency of the armies, supply problems, betrayal and espionage led to defeats. By the end of 1915 Russia lost the Baltic states, Poland, part of Ukraine and Belarus. In 1916 under the leadership of General Brusilov, a breakthrough was carried out on the Southwestern Front. More than 400 thousand enemies were killed, wounded and captured. Germany sent forces to help Austria-Hungary and saved it from disaster. On March 1, 1917 A general offensive of the Russian army was being prepared along the entire front line. But a week before this, the enemies staged a revolution in Petrograd. The offensive failed. The February Revolution destroyed all the army's victorious plans. Mass desertion began, soldiers did not obey orders, intelligence data was declassified. As a result, all offensives of the Russian army failed. There were many killed and captured.
RESULTS: After October 1917 The Bolsheviks came to power. In March 1918 they concluded with Germany " Treaty of Brest-Litovsk", gave the western lands to Russia and stopped participating in the war. Russia lost the most: more than 6 million killed, wounded, and maimed. The main industrial areas were destroyed.
The war we won ended in shame and a humiliating peace. This is what happens when people succumb to the provocations of their enemies. To be continued.
Related information.
On June 28, 1914, the murder of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Ferdinand and his wife was committed in Bosnia, in which Serbia was accused of involvement. And although the British statesman Edward Gray called for a resolution to the conflict, offering the 4 largest powers as mediators, he only managed to further inflame the situation and drag all of Europe, including Russia, into the war.
Almost a month later, Russia announces the mobilization of troops and conscription into the army, after Serbia turns to it for help. However, what was initially planned as a precautionary measure provoked a response from Germany with demands for an end to conscription. As a result, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia.
Main events of the First World War.
Years of the First World War.
- When did the First World War start? The year the First World War began was 1914 (July 28).
- When did World War II end? The year the First World War ended was 1918 (November 11).
Key dates of the First World War.
During the 5 years of the war there were many important events and operations, but among them several stand out that played a decisive role in the war itself and its history.
- July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia supports Serbia.
- On August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on Russia. Germany in general has always strived for world domination. And throughout August, everyone gives each other ultimatums and does nothing but declare war.
- In November 1914, Great Britain begins a naval blockade of Germany. Gradually, active mobilization of the population into the army begins in all countries.
- At the beginning of 1915, large-scale offensive operations were launched in Germany on its eastern front. The spring of the same year, namely April, can be associated with such a significant event as the beginning of the use of chemical weapons. Again from Germany.
- In October 1915, hostilities began against Serbia from Bulgaria. In response to these actions, the Entente declares war on Bulgaria.
- In 1916, the use of tank technology began, mainly by the British.
- In 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne in Russia and a provisional government came to power, which led to a split in the army. Active military operations continue.
- In November 1918, Germany proclaims itself a republic - the result of the revolution.
- On November 11, 1918, in the morning, Germany signed the Compiègne Armistice and from that time on, hostilities ended.
The end of the First World War.
Despite the fact that for most of the war German forces were able to inflict serious blows on the Allied army, by December 1, 1918, the Allies were able to break through to the borders of Germany and begin its occupation.
Later, on June 28, 1919, having no other choice, German representatives signed a peace treaty in Paris, which was eventually called the “Peace of Versailles,” and put an end to the First World War.
33. First World War (1914-1918): causes, results.
The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist and member of the Young Bosnia organization. However, from the very beginning of the First World War, historians have been concerned with a more significant question: what were the reasons for its outbreak?
There are likely to be many reasons for the outbreak of the First World War. But most historians are inclined to consider the main one to be the competing interests of the largest European powers. What were these interests from the point of view of historians?
Great Britain (as part of the Entente)
Fearing a potential German threat, she abandoned the country’s traditional policy of “isolation” and switched to a policy of forming an anti-German bloc of states.
She did not want to put up with German penetration into areas that she considered “hers”: East and South-West Africa. She also wanted to take revenge on Germany for supporting the Boers during the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. In connection with this, it was already waging an undeclared economic and trade war against Germany and was actively preparing in case of aggressive actions on the part of Germany.
France (part of the Entente)
She wanted to recoup the defeat inflicted on her by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.
She wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine, separated from France in 1871.
She could not accept her losses in traditional sales markets due to competition with German goods.
She was afraid of new German aggression. She sought to preserve her colonies, in particular North Africa.
Russia (as part of the Entente)
She demanded a revision in her favor of the control regime over the Dardanelles Strait, because she wanted to have free passage for her fleet in the Mediterranean Sea.
She assessed the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway (1898) as an unfriendly act on the part of Germany. Russia saw this construction as an encroachment on its rights in Asia. Although, as historians note, in 1911 these differences with Germany were resolved by the Potsdam Agreement.
She did not want to put up with Austrian penetration into the Balkans and the fact that Germany was gaining strength and began to dictate its terms in Europe.
She wanted to dominate all Slavic peoples, so she supported anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish sentiments among the Serbs and Bulgarians in the Balkans.
Serbia (as part of the Entente)
Having gained full independence only in 1878, she sought to establish herself in the Balkans as the leader of the Slavic peoples of the peninsula.
She wanted to form Yugoslavia, including all the Slavs living in the south of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Unofficially supported nationalist organizations that fought against Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
German Empire (Triple Alliance)
As an economically developed country, it sought military, economic and political dominance on the European continent.
Since Germany needed markets, and it only entered the struggle for colonies after 1871, it longed to gain equal rights in the colonial possessions of England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal.
In the Entente she saw an alliance against itself in order to undermine its power.
Austria-Hungary (Triple Alliance)
Due to its multinationality, it played the role of a constant source of instability in Europe.
She tried to hold on to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she captured in 1908.
It opposed Russia because Russia took on the role of protector of all Slavs in the Balkans, and Serbia.
USA (supported the Entente)
Here historians do not express themselves specifically, citing only the fact that before the First World War the United States was the world's largest debtor, and after the war it became the world's sole creditor.
♦ Exacerbation of contradictions between industrial powers over sales markets, sources of raw materials, spheres of influence
After the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, events developed as follows:
07/15/28/1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
19.07 (01.08) Germany declared war on Russia.
21.07 (03.08) Germany declared war on France.
22.07 (04.08) Great Britain declared war on Germany.
As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German.
Six months later, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919), drawn up by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference, officially ending the First World War.
Peace treaties with
Germany (Treaty of Versailles)
Austria (Treaty of Saint Germain)
Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly)
Hungary (Treaty of Trianon)
Turkey (Treaty of Sèvres).
The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, the liquidation of four empires: the Russian, German, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, and the latter two were divided.
Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was reduced territorially and weakened economically. The difficult conditions of the Treaty of Versailles for Germany (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation it suffered gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis coming to power and unleashing World War II.
The First World War accelerated the development of new weapons and means of warfare. For the first time, tanks, chemical weapons, a gas mask, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, and a flamethrower were used. Airplanes, machine guns, mortars, submarines, and torpedo boats became widespread. The firepower of the troops increased sharply. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be divided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased. “Trench tactics” of warfare also appeared with the aim of exhausting the enemy and depleting his economy, working on military orders.
The enormous scale and protracted nature of the First World War led to an unprecedented militarization of the economy for industrial states. This had an impact on the course of economic development of all major industrial states in the period between the two world wars: strengthening state regulation and economic planning, the formation of military-industrial complexes, accelerating the development of national economic infrastructures (energy systems, a network of paved roads, etc.) , an increase in the share of production of defense products and dual-use products.
34 .Political parties of Russia in the conditions of the First World War.
Classes and parties. The bourgeoisie, bourgeois landowners, and a significant part of the wealthy intelligentsia (about 4 million people) relied on economic power, education, and experience in participating in political life and managing government institutions. They sought to prevent the further development of the revolution, stabilize the socio-political situation and strengthen their property.
The working class (18 million people) consisted of urban and rural proletarians. They managed to feel their political strength, were predisposed to revolutionary agitation and were ready to defend their rights with weapons. They fought for the introduction of an 8-hour working day, a guarantee of employment, and increased wages. Factory committees (factory committees) spontaneously arose in cities to establish workers' control over production and resolve controversial issues with entrepreneurs.
The peasantry (130 million people) demanded the destruction of large private land properties and the transfer of land to those who cultivate it. Local land committees and village assemblies were created in the villages, which made decisions on the redistribution of land. Relations between peasants and landowners were extremely tense.
The army (15 million people) became a special political force. The soldiers advocated ending the war and broad democratization of all military institutions. They actively supported the basic demands of the workers and peasants and were the main armed force of the revolution.
The extreme right (monarchists, Black Hundreds) suffered a complete collapse after the February Revolution. The Octobrists did not have a historical perspective, they unconditionally supported industrialists on the labor issue and advocated the preservation of landownership. All of them were focused on suppressing the revolution and served as support for counter-revolutionary conspiracies.
The Kadets from the opposition party became the ruling party, initially occupying key positions in the Provisional Government. They stood for turning Russia into a parliamentary republic. On the agrarian issue, they still advocated the purchase of landowners' lands by the state and peasants. The cadets put forward the slogan of maintaining loyalty to the allies and waging the war “to the victorious end.”
The Social Revolutionaries, the most massive party after the revolution, proposed turning Russia into a federal republic of free nations, eliminating landownership and distributing land among the peasants “according to an equalizing norm.” They sought to end the war by concluding a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities, but at the same time considered it necessary to defend the revolution from German militarism. In the summer of 1917, a left wing emerged in the Socialist Revolutionary Party, which protested against cooperation with the Provisional Government and insisted on an immediate solution to the agrarian question. In the fall, the Left Social Revolutionaries formed an independent political organization.
The Mensheviks, the second largest and most influential party, advocated the creation of a democratic republic, the right of nations to self-determination, the confiscation of landowners' lands and their transfer to the disposal of local governments. In foreign policy, they, like the Socialist Revolutionaries, took the position of “revolutionary defencism.”
The Cadets, Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks delayed the implementation of their program provisions until the end of the war and the convening of the Constituent Assembly. The Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, operating in a single political bloc, enjoyed great authority in the Soviets, trade unions, agrarian committees and other public organizations.
The Bolsheviks took extreme left positions. In March, the party leadership was ready to cooperate with other socialist forces and provide conditional support to the Provisional Government. It adopted the idea of “revolutionary defencism.”
However, after V.I. Lenin returned from emigration, his program (“April Theses”) was adopted. It provided for a transition from a bourgeois-democratic revolution to a socialist one. The political core of the program was the idea of establishing a republic of Soviets of workers and poor peasants and, in connection with this, the refusal to support the Provisional Government. In the economic sphere, it was proposed to confiscate the landowners and nationalize all land; transition to Soviet control over the production and distribution of products; nationalization of the banking system. The Bolsheviks advocated Russia's immediate withdrawal from the imperialist war. Their program excluded cooperation with “moderate” socialists and, in principle, was aimed at seizing political power.
In the trenches of the First World War
So, the Eastern Front was eliminated, and Germany could concentrate all its forces on the Western Front.
This became possible after a separate peace treaty was concluded, signed on February 9, 1918 between the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Central Powers in Brest-Litovsk (the first peace treaty signed during the First World War); a separate international peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918 in Brest-Litovsk by representatives of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) and a separate peace treaty concluded on May 7, 1918 between Romania and the Central Powers. This treaty ended the war between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey on the one hand, and Romania on the other.
Russian troops leave the Eastern Front
Advance of the German Army
Germany, having withdrawn its troops from the Eastern Front, hoped to transfer them to the Western Front, gaining a numerical superiority over the Entente troops. Germany's plans included a large-scale offensive and the defeat of the Allied forces on the Western Front, and then the end of the war. It was planned to dismember the allied group of troops and thereby achieve victory over them.
In March-July, the German army launched a powerful offensive in Picardy, Flanders, on the Aisne and Marne rivers, and during fierce battles advanced 40-70 km, but was unable to defeat the enemy or break through the front. Germany's limited human and material resources were depleted during the war. In addition, having occupied vast territories of the former Russian Empire after the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the German command, in order to maintain control over them, was forced to leave large forces in the east, which negatively affected the course of military operations against the Entente.
By April 5, the first phase of the Spring Offensive (Operation Michael) was completed. The offensive continued until mid-summer 1918, ending with the Second Battle of the Marne. But, as in 1914, the Germans were also defeated here. Let's talk about this in more detail.
Operation Michael
German tank
This is the name given to the large-scale offensive of German troops against the armies of the Entente during the First World War. Despite the tactical success, the German armies failed to complete their main task. The offensive plan called for defeating the Allied forces on the Western Front. The Germans planned to dismember the allied group of troops: throw the British troops into the sea, and force the French to retreat to Paris. Despite initial successes, German troops failed to complete this task. But after Operation Michael, the German command did not abandon active actions and continued offensive operations on the Western Front.
Battle of Lysa
Battle of the Lys: Portuguese troops
The battle between German and Allied (1st, 2nd British armies, one French cavalry corps, as well as Portuguese units) troops during the First World War in the Lys River area. It ended in success for the German troops. Operation Fox was a continuation of Operation Michael. By attempting a breakthrough in the Lys area, the German command hoped to turn this offensive into the “main operation” to defeat the British troops. But the Germans failed to do this. As a result of the Battle of the Lys, a new ledge 18 km deep was formed in the Anglo-French front. The Allies suffered heavy losses during the April offensive on Lys and the initiative in the conduct of hostilities continued to remain in the hands of the German command.
Battle of the Aisne
Battle of the Aisne
The battle took place from May 27 to June 6, 1918 between German and allied (Anglo-French-American) forces; it was the third phase of the Spring Offensive of the German army.
The operation was carried out immediately after the second phase of the Spring Offensive (Battle of the Lys). German troops were opposed by French, British and American troops.
On May 27, artillery preparation began, which caused great damage to the British troops, then the Germans used a gas attack. After this, the German infantry managed to move forward. The German troops were successful: 3 days after the start of the offensive, they captured 50,000 prisoners and 800 guns. By June 3, German troops approached 56 km to Paris.
But soon the offensive began to subside, the attackers lacked reserves, and the troops were tired. The Allies offered fierce resistance, and American troops newly arrived on the Western Front were brought into battle. On June 6, in view of this, the German troops were given the order to stop on the Marne River.
Completion of the Spring Offensive
Second Battle of the Marne
From July 15 to August 5, 1918, a major battle took place between German and Anglo-French-American troops near the Marne River. This was the last general offensive of German troops during the entire war. The battle was lost by the Germans after a French counterattack.
The battle began on July 15, when 23 German divisions of the 1st and 3rd Armies, led by Fritz von Bülow and Karl von Einem, attacked the French 4th Army, led by Henri Gouraud, east of Reims. At the same time, 17 divisions of the 7th German Army, with the support of the 9th, attacked the 6th French Army west of Reims.
The Second Battle of the Marne took place here (modern photography)
American troops (85,000 people) and the British Expeditionary Force came to the aid of the French troops. The offensive in this sector was stopped on July 17 by the joint efforts of troops from France, Great Britain, the United States and Italy.
Ferdinand Foch
After stopping the German advance Ferdinand Foch(commander of the allied forces) launched a counteroffensive on July 18, and already on July 20 the German command gave the order to retreat. The Germans returned to the positions they occupied before the spring offensive. By August 6, the Allied counterattack fizzled out after the Germans consolidated their old positions.
The catastrophic defeat of Germany led to the abandonment of the plan to invade Flanders and was the first of a series of Allied victories that ended the war.
The Battle of the Marne marked the beginning of the Entente counter-offensive. By the end of September, Entente troops had eliminated the results of the previous German offensive. In a further general offensive in October and early November, most of the captured French territory and part of Belgian territory were liberated.
In the Italian Theater at the end of October, Italian troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at Vittorio Veneto and liberated Italian territory captured by the enemy the previous year.
In the Balkan theater, the Entente offensive began on September 15. By November 1, Entente troops liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary.
Surrender of Germany in World War I
Entente's Hundred Day Offensive
It took place from August 8 to November 11, 1918 and was a large-scale offensive by Entente troops against the German army. The Hundred Day Offensive consisted of several offensive operations. British, Australian, Belgian, Canadian, American and French troops took part in the decisive Entente offensive.
After the victory on the Marne, the Allies began to develop a plan for the final defeat of the German army. Marshal Foch believed that the moment had arrived for a large-scale offensive.
Together with Field Marshal Haig, the main attack site was chosen - the site on the Somme River: here was the border between French and British troops; Picardy had flat terrain, which made it possible to actively use tanks; the Somme section was covered by the weakened 2nd German Army, which was exhausted by constant Australian raids.
The offensive group included 17 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions, 2,684 artillery pieces, 511 tanks (heavy Mark V and Mark V* tanks and medium Whippet tanks), 16 armored vehicles and about 1,000 aircraft. The German 2- The army had 7 infantry divisions, 840 guns and 106 aircraft. The Allies' huge advantage over the Germans was the presence of a large mass of tanks.
Mk V* - British heavy tank from the First World War
The start of the offensive was scheduled for 4 hours 20 minutes. It was planned that after the tanks had passed the line of the advanced infantry units, all the artillery would open surprise fire. A third of the guns were supposed to create a barrage of fire, and the remaining 2/3 would fire at infantry and artillery positions, command posts, and reserve routes. All preparations for the attack were carried out secretly, using carefully thought-out measures to camouflage and mislead the enemy.
Amiens operation
Amiens operation
On August 8, 1918, at 4:20 a.m., allied artillery opened powerful fire on positions, command and observation posts, communications centers and rear facilities of the 2nd German Army. At the same time, a third of the artillery organized a barrage of fire, under the cover of which the divisions of the 4th British Army, accompanied by 415 tanks, launched an attack.
The surprise was a complete success. The Anglo-French offensive came as a complete surprise to the German command. Fog and massive explosions of chemical and smoke shells covered everything that was further than 10-15 m from the positions of the German infantry. Before the German command could understand the situation, a mass of tanks fell on the positions of the German troops. The headquarters of several German divisions were taken by surprise by rapidly advancing British infantry and tanks.
The German command abandoned any offensive actions and decided to move on to the defense of the occupied territories. “Don’t leave an inch of land without a fierce fight,” was the order to the German troops. In order to avoid serious internal political complications, the High Command hoped to hide the true state of the army from the German people and achieve acceptable peace conditions. As a result of this operation, German troops began to retreat.
The Saint-Mihiel operation of the Allies intended to eliminate the Saint-Mihiel ledge, reach the Norois, Odimon front, liberate the Paris-Verdun-Nancy railway and create an advantageous starting position for further operations.
Saint-Mihiel operation
The operation plan was developed jointly by the French and American headquarters. It provided for two strikes on converging directions of German troops. The main blow was delivered to the southern face of the ledge, and the auxiliary blow was delivered to the western one. The operation began on September 12. The German defense, overwhelmed by the American advance at the height of the evacuation and deprived of most of its artillery, already withdrawn to the rear, was powerless. The resistance of the German troops was insignificant. The next day, the Saint-Mihiel salient was practically eliminated. On September 14 and 15, American divisions came into contact with the new German position and stopped the offensive at the Norois and Odimon line.
As a result of the operation, the front line was reduced by 24 km. In four days of fighting, German troops alone lost 16 thousand people and more than 400 guns as prisoners. American losses did not exceed 7 thousand people.
A major offensive by the Entente began, which dealt the final, fatal blow to the German army. The front was falling apart.
But Washington was in no hurry to make a truce, trying to weaken Germany as much as possible. The US President, without rejecting the possibility of starting peace negotiations, demanded from Germany guarantees that all 14 points would be fulfilled.
Wilson's Fourteen Points
US President William Wilson
Wilson's Fourteen Points- draft peace treaty ending the First World War. It was developed by US President William Wilson and presented to Congress on January 8, 1918. This plan included the reduction of armaments, the withdrawal of German units from Russia and Belgium, the declaration of independence of Poland and the creation of a “general association of nations” (called the League of Nations). This program formed the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. Wilson's 14 points were an alternative to those developed by V.I. Lenin's Decree on Peace, which was less acceptable to the Western powers.
Revolution in Germany
The fighting on the Western Front had by this time entered its final stage. On November 5, the 1st American Army broke through the German front, and on November 6, the general retreat of German troops began. At this time, an uprising of sailors of the German fleet began in Kiel, which developed into the November Revolution. All attempts to suppress revolutionary uprisings were unsuccessful.
Truce of Compiègne
In order to prevent the final defeat of the army, on November 8, a German delegation arrived in the Compiegne Forest, received by Marshal Foch. The terms of the Entente armistice were as follows:
- Cessation of hostilities, evacuation within 14 days of the areas of France occupied by German troops, the territories of Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as Alsace-Lorraine.
- Entente troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine, and on the right bank it was planned to create a demilitarized zone.
- Germany pledged to immediately return all prisoners of war to their homeland and evacuate its troops from the territories of countries that were previously part of Austria-Hungary, from Romania, Turkey and East Africa.
Germany was to give the Entente 5,000 artillery pieces, 30,000 machine guns, 3,000 mortars, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 carriages, 2,000 aircraft, 10,000 trucks, 6 heavy cruisers, 10 battleships, 8 light cruisers, 50 destroyers and 160 submarines. The remaining ships of the German navy were disarmed and interned by the Allies. The blockade of Germany continued. Foch sharply rejected all attempts by the German delegation to soften the terms of the armistice. In fact, the conditions put forward required unconditional surrender. However, the German delegation still managed to soften the terms of the truce (reduce the number of weapons to be issued). Requirements for the release of submarines were lifted. In other points, the terms of the truce remained unchanged.
On November 11, 1918, at 5 a.m. French time, the terms of the armistice were signed. The Compiegne Truce was concluded. At 11 o'clock the first shots of the 101st artillery salute of nations were fired, signaling the end of the First World War. Germany's allies in the Quadruple Alliance capitulated even earlier: Bulgaria capitulated on September 29, Turkey on October 30, and Austria-Hungary on November 3.
Representatives of the Allies at the signing of the armistice. Ferdinand Foch (second from right) near his carriage in the Compiegne Forest
Other theaters of war
On the Mesopotamian front Throughout 1918 there was a lull. On November 14, the British army, without encountering resistance from Turkish troops, occupied Mosul. This was the end of the fighting here.
In Palestine there was also a lull. In the fall of 1918, the British army launched an offensive and occupied Nazareth, the Turkish army was surrounded and defeated. The British then invaded Syria and ended the fighting there on 30 October.
In Africa German troops continued to resist. After leaving Mozambique, the Germans invaded the territory of the British colony of Northern Rhodesia. But when the Germans learned of Germany's defeat in the war, their colonial troops laid down their arms.
1. Uneven development of countries and attempts by the leading states of the world to divide an already divided world.
2. Intensifying struggle between the leading states of the world for spheres of influence, sales markets, sources of raw materials, colonies, and world domination.
3. Modernization of weapons systems, the arms race, the emergence of new means of exterminating people, which brought super-profits to the owners of the military-industrial complex.
4. The deepening of the internal political crisis in the leading countries of the world, which was exploding their power, the desire to overcome the growth of revolutionary and national liberation movements, to neutralize opposition political forces, to shift attention peoples from internal problems to external threats.
Nature of the war: aggressive, unfair on the part of all the warring states of both the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, 1882) and the Entente (Great Britain, France and Russia, 1904-1907).
The reason for the war: the murder on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist student, a member of the secret organization “Young Bosnia”, Gabriel Princip, of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife.
___________________________ On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary, with support from Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, the requirements of which were violated ____________________________
sovereignty of Serbia.
BEGINNING OF THE WAR
On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, despite the fact that almost all points of the ultimatum were accepted.
At the end of July 1914, Austro-Hungarian troops invaded Serbia and bombed Belgrade. In response, Russia announced mobilization.
In August 1914, Germany declared war on France.
Thus began the First World War, which involved 38 countries with a population of over 1 billion people, which accounted for 87% of the world's population. More than 70 million people were mobilized into the armed forces of these countries. The war became global.
Spain, Switzerland, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway, Finland) remained neutral until the end of the war.
August 1914 Japan declared war on Germany. On October 29, 1914, the Ottoman Empire moved against Russia and
other Entente countries.
STRATEGIC PLANS OF THE WARRANT STATES
Germany
1. Create the Great German Empire.
2. Expand the territory of the German Empire in Europe at the expense of the lands of France and Russia.
3. Establish political and economic hegemony in Europe.
4. Create a Pan-German Union with your superiority.
6. Turn the occupied territories into the raw material base of the Great German Empire.
Austria-Hungary
1. Strengthen your position on the Balkan Peninsula.
4. Capture Volyn and Podolia.
5. Suppress the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples of the empire.
Italy
Strengthen your influence on the Balkan Peninsula.
Türkiye
1. Strengthen your influence on the Balkan Peninsula.
2. Capture the Northern Black Sea region.
3. Establish control over the entire Black Sea.
Great Britain
1. Defeat the main rival in Europe - Germany.
4. Seize new oil possessions in Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula.
France
1. Return Alsace and Lorraine, which were captured by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870
2. Capture the Saar coal basin.
Russia
1. Expand your territory to the Carpathian Mountains, seize, under the guise of the idea of “unification of all Russian lands,” Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina, Transcarpathia.
2. Strengthen your influence on the Balkan Peninsula.
3. Establish your influence over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
Japan
1. Tried to conquer German possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
2. Conquer China.
Schlieffen Plan
According to the “lightning war” plan of the German General Schlieffen, according to which Germany began to act, it was assumed:
1. Concentrate your main efforts against France, advancing through Belgium and Luxembourg.
2. The war against France was planned to end in 6-8 weeks.
3. After this, transfer the army to the Eastern Front to defeat Russia.
Schlieffen (1833-1913) - one of the leading theoreticians of German military doctrine. He was Chief of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1905
PREPARING COUNTRIES FOR WAR
STRATEGIC PLANS OF THE WARRANT STATES
Well prepared for war:
1. In 1914, the size of the army was increased.
2. Significantly increased funds for military spending. In 1914 they accounted for half of all budget expenditures.
3. By mid-1914, the deepening of the Kiel Canal was completed, which made it possible to quickly transfer large warships from the Baltic Sea to the North Sea.
4. The new German artillery had no equal in the world.
5. All the necessary supplies were prepared to fight the short war that Germany was counting on.
6. With the help of Germany, the army of Austria-Hungary was significantly strengthened.
7. The Turkish army was under complete control of Germany.
Entente countries
1. The armament of the ground forces was worse than that of the Germans.
2. The industry of the Entente countries was not prepared for the transition to the production of military products.
3. France did not build fortifications on the border with Belgium.
Fronts that formed in 1914:
Western (here the German army was opposed by French, Belgian, and English troops);
Eastern (here the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian army were opposed by Russian troops).
Germany began military operations on the Western Front. German troops entered Belgium in violation of the Belgian Neutrality Treaty, which the German Chancellor called "a piece of paper" that should not be ignored.
FIGHTING IN 1914
Western Front
August 21, 1914 German troops through Belgium, bypassing French fortifications (the Maginot Line), invaded France. French troops and the English expeditionary force, which landed on the northern coast of France, were forced to retreat. German troops in five armies moved towards Paris.
End of August 1914 German troops found themselves 17 km from Paris.
On September 2, 1914, the President and government of France were forced to leave Paris. By sending part of the German troops east against the advancing Russian armies in East Prussia, the Germans did not have enough forces to encircle Paris! German troops reached the Marni River.
September 5-12, 1914 Battle of the Marne, in which more than 1,500,000 people participated on both sides. Entente troops (French, English and Indian infantry, British cavalry) went on the offensive and drove the enemy to the Ain River. At the end of 1914 the war in the West becomes positional. Trench warfare:
Soldiers from both sides dug into trenches;
Concrete and earthen fortifications were built;
Minefields and rows of barbed wire were installed in front of the trenches.
Eastern front
On August 17, 1914, Russian troops with the forces of two armies under the command of generals P. Rennenkampf and A. Samsonov went on the offensive in East Prussia.
On August 20, 1914, Russian troops defeated the German army in East Prussia. The German command hastily transferred two rifle corps and a cavalry division to the Eastern Front. The Germans surrounded two corps of Samsonov's army (30 thousand people and 200 guns).
September 1914 German troops completely ousted the army from East Prussia.
August - September 1914 Battle of Galicia, in which Russian troops of the Southwestern Front defeated the Austrians. Russian troops occupied the city of Lvov (September 3, 1914) and besieged the Przemysl fortress. Austrian losses - 400 thousand people.
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