The alternation of sounds is not reflected in the writing. Alternation concept

04.01.2021

Oppositions of vowels by the presence or absence of labialization, by the number and elevation of the language are characteristic only for their use under stress and without taking into account the influence of neighboring consonants on them. But in speech, sounds are pronounced non-isolated.

The pronunciation of vowels is influenced by consonants, as well as the place of stress in the word. In unstressed syllables, vowels differ from stressed ones, i.e. actually, much more vowels function in speech than was presented in Table 2. Vowel changes depending on phonetic positions (from the place of stress in the word and from the hardness or softness of neighboring consonants) are called phonetic (or positional) alternations.

Phonetic alternations of vowel sounds depending on the place of stress in the word

In phonetics, strong and weak positions of vowel sounds are distinguished. In a strong position, the vowels are stressed, sound distinct and do not change. Unstressed vowels are in a weak position, pronounced less distinctly, unclear. This weakening of vowel pronunciation is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. All vowels of unstressed syllables are subject to reduction, but the degree of reduction and its nature are not the same for different vowels. Vowels undergo the greatest changes depending on the place of stress in the word. Unstressed vowels are pronounced with less strength. Changes in unstressed vowels compared to stressed vowels are assessed on the basis of A.A. Potebni, who proposed an assessment of the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables: 3 - the strength of the stressed syllable, 2 - the strength of the first pre-stressed syllable (it is weaker), 1 - the strength of the remaining unstressed syllables (they are even weaker). On the basis of this formula, two degrees of change in unstressed vowels are distinguished compared to stressed ones: the first degree of reduction (I weak position) - for vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word, the second degree of reduction (II weak position) - for vowels in the second, third etc. pre-stressed and in all post-stressed syllables. The vowel sounds in the I weak position are subject to smaller changes, and in the II weak position, to large changes. Unstressed vowels are pronounced shorter than stressed vowels. Due to the reduction in the time for pronouncing an unstressed vowel, there is a significant deviation in the position of the articulatory organs from that observed when pronouncing the percussion. Unstressed vowels are articulated less vigorously than stressed vowels. Language assumes a position close to neutral, i.e. such as it occupies during a speech pause. So, when pronouncing the vowel [a] in the first pre-stressed syllable, due to the shorter duration of articulation, the language does not have time to reach the extreme lower position, and the vowel becomes not the lower ascent, like the stressed [a], but the middle-lower - [Л]. In the second pre-stressed syllable, the stressed vowel [a] is replaced by the sound of the middle rise [b], during the formation of which the tongue occupies an average vertical position in the oral cavity.

According to the degree of reduction and its nature, the vowels of the middle rise [e], [o] and the vowel of the lower rise [a] are opposed to the vowels of the upper rise [and], [s], [y].

The vowels of the upper ascent [and], [s], [y] in weak positions sound the same, but somewhat shorter and not as clear as under stress, although they do not lose their basic quality.

Such a change in the vowels of the upper ascent [and], [s], [y] is called quantitative reduction.

The vowels of the middle and lower rise are not only weakened, but qualitatively changed: they lose their basic quality. Such a change in the vowels of the middle and lower rise in weak positions is called a qualitative reduction.

Phonetic alternations of vowel sounds depending on adjacent hard or soft consonants

Adapting the pronunciation of one sound to the pronunciation of another is called accommodation. There are three types of accommodation: progressive (when the articulation of the vowel adapts to the articulation of the preceding consonant: strap - [л "amk]), regressive (when the articulation of the vowel adapts to the articulation of the subsequent consonant: take - [brother"] and progressive-regressive (when articulation of the vowel adapts to the articulation of both the preceding and subsequent soft consonants: sit -). In Russian, progressive accommodation is stronger. This is due to the fact that in Russian the preceding consonant has the greatest influence on vowels, since the influence of a consonant on a vowel within one syllable much stronger than the influence of a consonant of another syllable.

During the transition from consonant articulation to vowel articulation, the speech organs do not have time to quickly change their position. Soft consonants can cause the vowel articulation to shift upward. For example, in the word meat - [m "as'], after a soft consonant, you need to pronounce the sound [a]. When pronouncing a soft consonant [m"], the middle part of the back of the tongue is raised high. And to pronounce the vowel sound [a], the language must be quickly lowered, since this is a lower ascent vowel. Immediately, the tongue does not have time to descend and lingers a little in the upper position, which is characteristic of the vowel [and]. Therefore, the sound [a] in this word is its first
phase has a slight overtone, similar to | and], becomes more closed.

The vowel [and] after hard consonants experiences progressive acccomodation, becoming more backward sound. This is because it is influenced by the articulation of the preceding hard consonant. When pronouncing hard consonants, the tongue takes a more backward position than when pronouncing a front vowel [and]. Under the influence of the articulation of a hard consonant, the adjacent front vowel [and] is pushed back and the middle vowel [s] is pronounced instead: play - [igrat "] and play - [playrat"].

In the position between two soft consonants, all vowels become more closed, but the lower and middle rise vowels change as a result of accommodation more than the upper rise vowels.

The result of accommodation is positional alternation of vowels of two types.

Stressed vowels are pronounced distinctly and never sound the same as other vowels. Only minor changes are possible, which depend on the hardness or softness of neighboring consonants. For example, vowels of the front row under stress between soft consonants or at the beginning of a word before a soft consonant become more closed, narrow, tense: shadows - [t "e" n "and]. Drank - [p" and "l" and], il - [and "l]. Considering what has been said, the following positional alternations can be noted in the front vowels under stress: [e] // [e"], [and] / [and "].

But these alternations occur within the same phoneme and do not fulfill a distinctive function in the Russian language.

Non-front vowels under stress are also presented in different shades within the same phoneme. After soft consonants, before hard consonants, sounds are pronounced advanced in the excursion, and after hard consonants before soft ones, sounds advanced in recursion are pronounced. These shades of sounds are indicated by a dot from above on the side of the sign where the neighboring soft consonant is located: crumpled - [m ° al], mol - [mol ° l °], her l - [in ° ol], south -.

Between soft consonants, non-front vowels are represented by shades that are advanced throughout the articulation. This is marked by two dots above the sign: hatches - [l "y o κ’ and], uncles - [q, a o ∂ "ιtj, Leni - [l’ o ° n "and].

Thus, in non-front vowels under stress, depending on the proximity of hard or soft consonants, the following positional alternations can be noted: [a] ∖∖ a a a; oh oh oh oh; at

How can knowledge of phonetics be used in word processing systems? In the Russian language, there is such a phenomenon - the alternation of sounds. It manifests itself in the processes of word formation, when the sounds that make up parts of words (roots, suffixes, prefixes, endings - morphemes), fall into different phonetic positions - stressed or unstressed, in the vicinity of vowels or consonants, hard, soft or hissing. Here are examples of alternating vowel sounds at the root when stress is changed:

braid - braids [kasá - kosy], water - water [vadá - water]
trouble - trouble [b "idá - b" edy], river - rivers [r "iká - r" ek "and]
village - villages [from "iló - from" ola], twirl - nimble [in "irt" et "- in" ortk "uy]

(The ["] in phonetic transcription indicates the softness of the preceding consonant.)

In these examples, the spelling conveniently hides from us (and from the program that works with the written text) the subtleties of the alternation of sounds. Well, unless the dots above it give out some kind of trick ... but you can do without them, right? ...

Alas (and maybe fortunately), this is not always the case. Here are some examples:

granddaughter - granddaughter, tree - tree.

The alternation here is the same as in a pair village - villages, but the spelling rules require us to write here under stress about, but not e... Here are some more examples where the alternation of sounds is reflected in the letter:

seek - seek, history - prehistory.

It may seem that such cases are rare, but they are not. Until now, we have considered alternations only in the roots, but they also appear in other parts of the word, especially often - in suffixes and endings:

cat baby - mouse onok , fox baby - wolf onok
stretch willowt - unwind yvabe
great oh - good him
words ohm - vortex eat - days eat

There are many such examples.

The important thing here is that the specific sound and graphic appearance of the morpheme does not affect its meaning. So, for example, the root of the word seek has the same meaning, if written as claim or search (in a word search); suffix -onok || -young - this one a suffix for cubs, not two different suffixes; also, endings ohm || eat || eat represent one, single ending of the instrumental singular of nouns of the first declension.

The foregoing leads us to the idea that it would be nice to come up with a notation system that is invariant with respect to the indicated alternations. The morphemes recorded in such a special system would have a constant appearance, independent of phonetic conditions. Thus, we can avoid unnecessary "multiplication of entities" and simplify the algorithms that simulate word formation and inflection.

So, if all the "vocabulary material" (word stems, endings) is stored in a record we have invented, then, for example, the synthesis of a word form in most cases will be reduced to trivial concatenation, without the need to choose between different graphic versions of one ending. The main thing is not to forget in the end to convert the internal representation into spelling, because for the user our recording system may seem at least strange.

So, the matter is small - to develop a system for recording words, "insensitive" to the alternation of sounds. Well, let's get started?

Alternation types

There are two types of sound alternations - positional and non-positional. Positional the alternations are caused by phonetic conditions: the position of the stress and the properties of neighboring sounds. The combination of such conditions is called phonetic position. All the examples of alternation given so far have been positional.

Non-positional alternations are caused by reasons outside the competence of phonetics. They are also called grammatical or morphonological. For example, alternation [o || á] in the roots of words at twoit - at twowillowbe, copat - for dripyvabe due to the presence or absence of a suffix -willow ... It is easy to verify this. In words double and double the root vowel is in the same phonetic position - under stress, between the sounds [v..i]. Therefore, this alternation is not due to phonetic position. On the contrary, an exhaustive selection of cognate words with the suffix -willow and without it shows that the reason for the alternation is precisely in the presence of this suffix.

Phonetics considers only positional alternations. Non-positional ones will be considered further, within the framework of those word-formation and inflectional processes in which they appear.

Phonemes

Central to phonology is the concept phonemes... Oddly enough, this very concept, i.e. its definition is a subject of controversy among linguists (see, for example, Rosenthal, 1994, p. 188). The concept of a phoneme, which we will use later, will be illustrated with examples.

Phonemes of the Russian language

Consonants

With consonants, everything is quite simple. The correspondence of consonants and phonemes is almost complete. Sounds paired in hardness and softness generally correspond to different phonemes. Thus, the following classification of consonant phonemes takes place according to their phonetic properties:

Posterior palatine:

r	to	x
r "	to"	x "

Sizzling:

Yot:

The hardness-softness of sibilants is their constant property ( w, w, c - solid; h, w - soft).

The hardness-softness of the posterior palatine depends on their position in the word form: before the front vowels ([and], [e]) they are always soft, in all other positions they are hard. Combinations kya, kyo, kyu, ky, ke and similar with consonants r and x are uncharacteristic for the Russian phonetic system and are found mainly in borrowed words ( Cologne, Curie, Kyrgyzstan, cash, help) and in rare morphological forms: weaving, weaving, weaving.

<th\u003e Is a soft consonant.

Vowels

Consider some types of alternation of vowel sounds in different parts of the word (morphemes) depending on the stress and the surrounding consonants, for example:

alternation of sounds [á || and] (stressed [a] and unstressed [and]) after soft consonants in the roots of words hour - hours [hour - chisy], five - five [n "at" - n "utok],
alternation of sounds [e || and] ([e || s] after hard) in the roots of words river - river, color - colors, sixth - poles [shest - shysty], as well as in the endings: P. about winter - about summer.

(In pre-revolutionary spelling, this alternation was denoted by the letter yat, as opposed to the alternation [ó || and], denoted by the letters about and e.)

Note that instead of the unstressed sound [and], alternating with the drums [a] and [e], [e] can also sound. Thus, for example, the word clock can be read both as [chisy] and as [chesy].

alternation of sounds [ó || and] takes place after soft and sibilant. For example, in the roots of words chalk - chalk, hard - hard, walked out, oar - oars, star - stars, in suffixes: face ewat - face aboutwanny, in the endings: con em - shampoo em, ring about - heart e .
alternation of sounds [& oacute || a] occurs only after hard consonants and at the beginning of words. For example, in the roots of words floor - floors [floor - pala], wasp - osy [asá - ós], in suffixes: skating rink - scroll, in the endings: village - sieve [with "il & oacute - with "it" a].
alternation of sounds [and || s] does not depend on stress, but depends on the preceding consonant: at the beginning of words, as well as after soft consonants, the sound [and] appears, in other cases - [s]. For example, at the root: search - wanted, history - background, integral - integrand, in suffixes: Colin - Machine, in the endings: tables - nails - knives - forks... What is after solid wsh written and , is a spelling feature; sounds all the same [s].

The sound [y] does not alternate with anything (or, if you like, alternates with itself).

Thus, we have identified 5 types of alternation, covering all vowel sounds of the Russian language. Let's summarize them in a table:

Phoneme	Alternation	Letters
<at>	[y]	u, u
<a>	[a \|\| and]	and I
<e>	[uh \|\| and]	uh e
<and>	[and \|\| s]	s, and
<about>	[o \|\| a \|\| e]	about her

As you can see, our spelling basically follows the phonemic principle, i.e. there is a fairly unambiguous correspondence of phonemes and letters: each vowel phoneme corresponds to a pair of letters, one of which denotes the hardness of the preceding consonant, the other denotes softness (or the preceding [y], if this letter is at the beginning of a word or after a vowel).

And only just a phoneme<about\u003e stands out from the general row - it is denoted by three letters: o, e, e, distinguishing after soft and hissing percussion (e) and unstressed (e) sounds. In this case, one letter (e) is borrowed, already used to designate a phoneme<e\u003e. Let's take a closer look at what conditions the sound and spelling of the phoneme depend on.<about>.

Phoneme<about\u003e. The designation " ö »

Note that [& oacute] alternates with [a] after hard consonants and at the beginning of words, and with [and] after soft and sibilant ones. These two alternations are combined into one, depending on both the stress and the preceding consonant:

Option "o [a]" pronunciation and spelling of the phoneme<about\u003e in an unstressed position after a hard hissing and c occurs in a relatively small number of loan words: chocolate, chauffeur, jockey, duke... After h occurs even less often: lecho, ranch... After u does not occur at all.

Difference of letters about and e after sizzling and c in the stressed position is due to spelling, not phonetics.

Henceforth, to once again remind of the complexity of the transmission of phonemes in writing<about\u003e, we will denote it by the sign ö ... So, for example, the entry öy subject to the above conditions may mean either oyuor yoyor her.

Summary

We are used to seeing words in graphic form, as a sequence of letters. This idea seems to us the most natural, since we are constantly faced with it. And so it is not surprising that developers first rushed to use this representation in their word processing programs. This decision is quite justified, for example, in spell checkers. But if we want to model inflectional and derivational processes, then the most convenient will be the phonemic representation of linguistic information, in the form of a sequence of phonemes. The fact is that a living language obeys phonetic laws more than spelling laws, and taking this fact into account greatly simplifies the algorithms for morphological or derivational analysis and synthesis, eliminating the need to take into account spelling features.

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The adaptation of the pronunciation of one sound to the pronunciation of another sound is called accommodation. There are three types of accommodation: progressive (when the articulation of the vowel adapts to the articulation of the preceding consonant: strap - [л "amkк]), regressive (when the articulation of the vowel adapts to the articulation of the subsequent consonant: take - [brother"]) and progressive-regressive (when articulation vowel adapts to the articulation of both the preceding and the subsequent soft consonant: sit - (with "at"]). In Russian, progressive accommodation is stronger. This is due to the fact that in Russian the preceding consonant has the greatest influence on vowels, since the influence a consonant to a vowel within one syllable is much stronger than the influence of a consonant in another syllable.

During the transition from consonant articulation to vowel articulation, the speech organs do not have time to quickly change their position. Soft consonants can cause the vowel articulation to shift upward. For example, in the word meat - [m "as'], after a soft consonant, you need to pronounce the sound [a]. When pronouncing a soft consonant [m"], the middle part of the back of the tongue is raised high. And for the pronunciation of the vowel sound [a], the language must be quickly lowered, since it is a lower ascent vowel. Immediately, the tongue does not have time to descend and lingers a little in the upper position, which is characteristic of the vowel [and]. Therefore, the sound [a] in this word in its first phase has an insignificant overtones, similar to | and], becomes more closed.

The vowel [and] after hard consonants experiences progressive acccomodation, becoming more posterior. This is because it is influenced by the articulation of the preceding hard consonant. When pronouncing hard consonants, the tongue takes a more backward position than when pronouncing a front vowel [and]. Under the influence of the articulation of a hard consonant, the adjacent front vowel [and] is pushed back and the middle vowel [s] is pronounced instead: play - [igrat "] and play - [playrat"].

In the position between two soft consonants, all vowels become more closed, but the lower and middle rise vowels change as a result of accommodation more than the upper rise vowels.

The result of accommodation is positional alternation of vowels of two types.

Stressed vowels are pronounced distinctly and never sound the same as other vowels. Only minor changes are possible, which depend on the hardness or softness of adjacent consonants. For example, the vowels of the front row under stress between soft consonants or at the beginning of a word before a soft consonant become more closed, narrow, tense sounds: shadows - [t "e" n "and], drunk - [p" and "l" and], il - [and "l"]. Considering the above, the following positional alternations can be noted in the front vowels under stress: [e] // [e "] 7 [and] / [and"].

But these alternations occur within the same phoneme and do not fulfill a distinctive function in the Russian language.

Non-front vowels under stress are also presented in different shades within the same phoneme. After soft consonants, before hard consonants, sounds are pronounced advanced in the excursion, and after hard consonants before soft ones, sounds advanced in recursion are pronounced. These shades of sounds are indicated by a dot from above on the side of the sign where the adjacent soft consonant is located: crumpled - [m "al], mol - [mo" l "], led - [in" ol], south - "uk].

Between soft consonants, non-front vowels are represented by shades that are advanced throughout the articulation. This is marked by two dots above the sign: hatches - [l "y" k "and], uncles - [d" a "d" u], Leni - [l "o" n "u].

Thus, in non-front vowels under stress, depending on the proximity of hard or soft consonants, the following positional alternations can be noted: [a] \\\\ a a a; oh oh oh oh; uuu

Phonetic processes

Phonetic processes are changes in sounds that occur in time: one sound is replaced by another sound in the same position, but at a later time. Some phonetic processes are associated with the interaction of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called combinatorial), others are due to the position of the sound in the word and are not associated with the influence of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called positional).

Combinatorial ones include assimilation, dissimilation and simplification of consonant groups (dieresa).

Positional includes stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word ( the law of the end of a word).

Assimilationis the assimilation of a sound to a neighboring sound. Assimilation is characterized by the following features: 1) by direction; 2) by the result; 3) by position.

Assimilation can be of two types: regressive and progressive. With regressive assimilation, the subsequent sound likens the previous one, for example, a shop - [l afkb]. The subsequent voiceless consonant [к] likens to itself the previous voiced consonant [в] and makes it voiceless - [ф]. With progressive assimilation, the previous sound assimilates to the next one. The modern Russian literary language is characterized by regressive assimilation; there are no examples of progressive assimilation in the literary language. Progressive assimilation can only be found in dialects and vernacular, for example, in the place of the literary Va [n "k] a, they pronounce Va [n" k] i.

As a result, assimilation can be complete and incomplete (partial). With complete assimilation, one sound is assimilated to another in all respects: 1) by the place of formation of the barrier, 2) by the method of formation of the barrier; 3) by the ratio of voice and noise; 4) in terms of hardness and softness. For example, give - o [dd] at - o [d] at. The voiceless consonant [t] is likened to the subsequent voiced consonant [d] and becomes voiced [d], merging into one long sound [d] in pronunciation. The rest of the characteristics of the sounds [t] and [d] (by the place of formation, by the method of formation, by the hardness) are the same. With incomplete assimilation, one sound is likened to another not by all signs, but only by some, for example, everything - [fs "e]. This is incomplete assimilation, since the previous voiced consonant sound [в] is likened to the subsequent voiceless consonant sound [from 1] only by By the way of formation, the sounds [in] and [s "] are both slotted, ie. there is no need for assimilation. The sound [f] also remains slit. For the rest of the signs, there is no assimilation: 1) by the place of formation - [f] labial, and [s "] front-lingual; 2) by hardness and softness - [f] hard, and [s"] soft.

By position, assimilation can be contact and distant. In contact assimilation, the assimilated and the assimilated sounds are next to each other, there are no other sounds between them, for example: low - no [sk] o. The literary language is characterized by contact assimilation. During distant assimilation, other sounds (or sound) are found between the assimilated and assimilated sounds. Examples of distant assimilation are found in dialects and vernacular. For example, in the word highway between the sounds [ш] and [с] there is the sound [Л].

Assimilation types:

1. Deafness assimilation. Paired voiced noisy consonants, being in front of deaf noisy consonants, become like them and also become deaf: booth - bu ^ tk] a, all - [fs "e] This is regressive incomplete contact assimilation for deafness.

2. Assimilation by voicing. Paired voiceless noisy consonants, being in front of voiced noisy consonants, become similar to them and become voiced: beat off - o [db "] yt, pass - | zd] at. This is regressive incomplete contact assimilation by
sonority.

Assimilation in voicing and deafness occurs within the phonetic word, i.e. it is also observed at the junction of the service word with the significant: from the mountain - [zz] ora (assimilation by voicing), from the park - and [sn] arch (assimilation by deafness).

The consonants [in], [in "] in front of deaf noisy ones are deafened: all - [fs"] ooh (regressive assimilation by deafness). But the voiceless noisy consonants before [in], [in "] do not become voiced: whistle - [sv"] yst, not [zv "] yst.

3. Assimilation by softness. Paired hard consonants, being in front of soft consonants, become like them and become soft: bridge - mo [with "t"] ik. Previously, before soft consonants, the hard consonant had to be replaced by a soft one, but in modern pronunciation there has been a tendency towards the absence of assimilative softening, although this law is valid for consonants.

4. Assimilation by hardness. Paired soft consonants, being in front of hard consonants, become like them and become hard: lage [r "] - lage [ph] th, grya [z"] and - grya [zn] th. However, such assimilation in the Russian language is inconsistent and occurs in isolated cases. In addition, it is associated with a certain structure of the word: it occurs only when word formation of adjectives and (less often) nouns at the junction of the generating stem and the suffix: star [r "] - star [rsk"] iy, ko [n "] - ko [nsk" ] nd, st [n "] - ste [mon] 6th, knight [p"] - pb "shcha [rstv] about, etc.

5. Assimilation at the place of education (assimilation of sibilants before sibilants). The consonants [s], [h] in front of the hissing ones themselves become hissing and merge with them into one long sound (complete assimilation).

Dissimilation - assimilation of sounds in a stream of speech that are within one word. D. is characterized by irregular speech. In the literary language, it is observed only in two words - soft and light and in formations derived from them.

In the common Slavic language, there was D. tt - st, dt - st, since according to the law of an open syllable in the common Slavic language there should not be two explosive consonants next to it, because in this case the first explosive consonant made the syllable closed. The fricatives did not cover the previous syllable, they could be pronounced with the next syllable. Therefore, the confluence of two explosives was eliminated in the common Slavic language of D. consonants. This led to the appearance of alternations of plosive consonants with fricatives: metu - sweep, delirium - wander, whip - weave. D. in colloquial pronunciations: bomb - bonba, tram - tram.

Simplification of consonant groups. When three or more consonants converge, in some cases one of the consonants drops out, which leads to a simplification of these consonant groups. Combinations are simplified: stn (local), zdn (holiday), stl (envious), stsk (tourist), stc (plaintiff), zdc (bridle), ntc (talent), ndc (dutch), ntsk (giant), rdc or rdch (heart), lnz (sun). In words and forms formed from the foundations of feelings, health, the consonant is not pronounced. In almost all cases, simplification leads to the loss of dental consonants q or t.

From the historical simplifications of consonant groups, it should be noted the loss of d and t before the consonant l in past tense verbs: I lead, but I lead; weaved, but also weaved the loss of the suffix -л in masculine past tense verbs after stems on a consonant - carried, but carried, could, but could.

In word forms goat, goat, goat, goat, in words goats, goat, capricorn the root is the same. But we say that [h] (goat, goats), then [z "] (goat, capricorn), then [with] (goats), then [z °] (goat) or [z "°] (goat). The first vowel is also not one and the same: [o] (goats, goats), [a 0] (goat, goat, goat), [a] (Capricorn). Нс is the same and the first consonant: before [a 0], [e] is [k] (goat, capricorn), and before [o] is [to 0] (goats, goats). Such a change of sounds that occupy the same place in the same morpheme, but in different words or different word forms, is called the alternation of m. Replacing [s] with [s] (or vice versa) in words ko [for, ko [sa, we will not get alternation: the roots are different here. In a word rein can be pronounced [f "] and [f]. Variants of the word tunnel and tunnel differ by the sounds [a 0] and [y], but this is not an alternation, but a variation of sounds in the same word form.

Alternations can be positional and non-positional. II positional alternations are associated with certain positions, caused by them. In phonetic alternations, positions (i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound) are phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable: girlfriends] a - dru [to], [games - with [ъgran, knit - connect [ska, and [a] p - p [b * ry - p [e] rovoy. In morphological alternations, positions are morphological - position in front of a certain morpheme (suffix or ending), the belonging of a word to one or another morphological class: re [ka - re [h] noy (before the suffix - "-), ly6 "] th - l / o [bl "] / 6 (before the end of the 1st person singular), ty [ho - ty [shh (noun III sc.).

Positional alternations may not be aware of exceptions in a given language system. Such alternations are called positionally constrained: for example, phonetic alternation of a noisy voiced consonant with a voiceless at the end of a word (gla [z] a - glas]) or in front of a deaf noisy (eye [z] a - head [s] ki) morphological alternation [g || g] before adjective suffix - // - (friend [g] a - other [f] ny), before the verb suffix -and (help [g] a - other [f] yt) or before the endings of II conjugation verbs (friend [g] a - friend [f] y, dru [f] ish etc.).

Positional alternations that know exceptions are called positionally attached. For example, the phonetic alternation of a hard dental consonant with a soft one in position

before a soft dental (bridge - bridge) ns necessarily at the junction of the prefix and the root (ra [s)] hew and ra [s] hew), at the beginning of a word ([with "tena and rarely [with ] tena), after a hard consonant ( sher [with "тъ and gier [s] тъ); morphological alternation [o || a] before the verb suffix - iva - / - willow- (chipped off - splits off, comes out - nurses, demolishes - wears out, catches - catches etc.) knows exceptions: trample - trample and and / l / - stomp, slaps - slaps and etc.

In addition to positional ones, there are also such alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditioning: friend [g] a - other [z "] I, sve [t] - illumination "] at, zaso] hnut - zas [s] hat - zas [y] shit. These are non-positional alternations that are associated only with specific words.

Phonetic positionally determined alternation is the alternation of sounds related to one phoneme. Phonetic positionally attached alternation can be an alternation of sounds related to the same phoneme and an alternation of phonemes. So, if deviations from positional alternation are fixed in separate words, lexicalized and obligatory for speakers, then such alternations are phoneme alternations. For example, alternating [n "|| n] in front of a hard tooth (ko [n"] - kb [n] ny, Kaza [n "] - kaza [nsk\u003e spa [n "] ets - spanish [tsy) knows the exception: yu [and "] - yu [n "] sky. Therefore, this alternation of sounds is an alternation of phonemes / n "|| n /. If deviations from positional alternation are optional, optional, then such positionally alternating sounds are considered as representatives of one phoneme. For example, alternating percussion [a] with unstressed [and e] after a soft consonant (p ["a] ty - p [and e] so, p [r z] d - p [and e] dy) represent the phoneme / a /, despite the fact that in words like speculative, assimilative in the pre-stressed syllable along with [and e] there is a pronunciation ["a].

Morphological and non-positional alternations of phonemes are called historical alternations.

Phonetic positional alternations can be of two types: a) alternations that form parallel rows that do not have common members; b) alternations that form intersecting rows that have common members.

Here is a schematic representation of these two types of alternation in positions R 1 and R/.

For example, the phonemes / p /, / l / form parallel rows of sounds alternating in different positions:

The phoneme / p / is represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds [p || p ° || p]. The phoneme / l / represents the series [l || l ° || l]. Wherein

in each position / p / and / l / are represented by different sounds, these phonemes are different in all positions.

Phonemes / b /, / n / form intersecting rows of alternating sounds:

The coincidence of two or more phonemes in a certain position is called neutralization. In the position of neutralization, these phonemes are realized by the same sound. So, phonemes / b /, / n /, realized by different sounds, differ before vowels and are neutralized at the end of the word, where they are realized by the same sound.

Positionally conditioned sounds are combined into one phoneme. M.V. Panov gives an example of the positional alternation of sounds in accordance with the preposition from before nouns:

The last alternation is easy to check: pronounced the same turned out to be Shchukar and ended up with Shchukar. This is explained by the fact that before [nG] the sound [s] must be replaced by [w "]; the result would be a triple-length consonant [w" nGnG], since [IG] \u003d [w "w"]. Such sounds are impossible in Russian: in place of [uh "igzG], pronounced [ш" ш ").

The phoneme / s / is realized by the following series of positionally alternating sounds: [s | with ° || with "|| z || z" || w || f || w "| f" || -]. Consequently, a phoneme can be represented by sounds completely different from one another (for example, [s °] and [z "]), including the zero sound.

Cm.: Panov M.V. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1979.

Positional alternation

At the same place in the same morpheme, different sounds can be pronounced. In the forms of the word goat, goat, goat, goat, in the words goats, goat, capricorn, the root is the same. But we pronounce now [z] (goat, goats), now [z "] (goat, goat, capricorn), then [s] (goat), then [z], a rounded consonant, when pronouncing which the lips are tense and extended in The vowels are also not pronounced the same: k [b] evil, k [o] z - k [a] for, k [a] evil. The first consonant is also not the same: before [a] it is [k]: [ka] for, before [o] this [k]: [k] ozly, [k °] lake Such a change of sounds is called alternation. Alternation occurs only in the same morphemes. Replacing [z] with [s] or on the contrary, in the words ko [z] a, ko [s] a, we will not get alternation - the roots here are different.

Alternation can be associated with a specific position of sounds in a word. So, in Russian, the sound [g], hitting the end of the word, is replaced by the sound [k].

Alternation [g // k] in Russian is positional alternation. Positional alternation is an alternation that occurs in any position and does not know any exceptions in a given language system. The alternation [g // k] is phonetic. Phonetic alternations have positions, i.e. the conditions for the appearance of this or that sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable.

But here's another example - alternation [g // f]: friend [g] a - friend [f] ny, boom [g] a - boom [f] ny, tai [g] a - tayo [f] ny, dv [t] at - mobile, mo [g] y - possible [f] ny. This alternation is carried out in many words, and one might think that it is due to the position before [n]. This would mean that it is also phonetic.

But this is not so: [g] before [n] is not necessarily replaced by [f]: [g] ohm - [gn] ar, mi [t] at - mi [g] whip, walk - sha [g] whip. Phonetic

there is no positional conditioning. But there is another positional conditionality: the alternation [g // f] does not know any exceptions in the position before the adjective suffix - m-. The position here is morphological, the alternation is morphological positional. In addition to positional alternations, there are those that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditioning: a friend is friends, an ignoramus is an ignoramus, death is a pestilence - to vanish. Such alternations are associated only with specific words.

According to the rules of Russian spelling, phonetic alternations are usually not reflected in writing. We write the same root of the word leg - leg, although all three sounds in the first form and in the second are different. Non-phonetic alternations are usually conveyed in writing in different letters: leg - footboard. Phonetic alternation is the alternation of sounds related to one phoneme. Non-phonetic alternation is the alternation of phonemes.