Hydrography definition. The meaning of the word hydrography
(from Hydro... and... graphics)
a branch of hydrology devoted to the description of water bodies and their individual parts. 1) A section of land hydrology, the main task of which is the study and description of individual water bodies: rivers, lakes, reservoirs (and their combination in a particular territory), their position and physical and geographical conditions, size and regime. The study of individual water bodies makes it possible to identify patterns in the distribution of land waters, to understand the features of their regime. Geography is based on patterns established by general hydrology and physical geography. The tasks of hydrogeography also include the study of changes in the regime of water bodies caused by human activities. The most complete information about hydrogeology of the land of the Soviet Union is contained in the reference books Resources of Surface Waters of the USSR. 2) A branch of oceanology that deals with the description of the subdivision of the World Ocean. The tasks of marine hydrogeography also include a complex of scientific disciplines that study the hydrometeorological regime, geodetic fields in the World Ocean, the nature of the soils and coasts of the oceans and seas, and the dynamics of the topography of the seabed. In Russia, the organizational formation of the Hydrographic Service was carried out in 1718 by the establishment of Admiralty Collegiums, which were entrusted with being in charge of this aspect of maritime affairs. In 1827, the Directorate of the General Hydrographer was established, which in 1885 was transformed into the Main Hydrographic Directorate. G.'s development abroad began in the first half of the 18th century. - in France (1720), Great Britain and Holland (1737); in the USA since 1830. The development of scientific geology in Russia and the USSR is associated with the names of A. A. Tillo, A. I. Vilkitsky, Yu. M. Shokalsky, V. M. Rodevich, E. V. Bliznyak, and I. F. Molodykh etc. See also Hydrographic Service. Lit.: Bliznyak E. V., Ovchinnikov K. M., Bykov V. D., Hydrography of the rivers of the USSR, M., 1945; Maksimov G.S., Hydrography as a science, in the book: Scientific notes of the Higher Arctic Naval School, in 1, L. - M., 1949; his own, Hydrographic inventory, M. - L., 1949; Sheikin P. A., Hydrographic work on the rivers, Leningrad, 1949; Manual on reconnaissance hydrographic research of rivers, L., 1949; Davydov L.K. Hydrography of the USSR, vol. 1-2, L., 1953-55; Glushkov V. G., Questions of theory and methods of hydrological research, M., 1961; Belobrov A.P., Hydrography of the sea, M., 1964; Sokolov A. A., Hydrography of the USSR, L., 1964. A. I. Chebotarev, K. G. Tikhotsky.
- - translated from Greek - a description of the waters of the earth's surface, usually this word means a set of questions on the study of oceans, seas, lakes and rivers, especially for purposes ...
Marine vocabulary
- - 1) the science of shipping lanes, the forms of the bottom of the oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, canals, developing ways to improve shipping lanes ...
Modern Encyclopedia
- - a section of hydrology that deals with the description of the waters of the earth's surface, seas, lakes, rivers, etc. by studying and mapping their forms and physical features, depths, seabed, shallows, ...
Ecological dictionary
- - in literal translation means a description of the waters of the earth's surface. In the commonly used sense, geology embraces a number of issues related to the study of oceans, seas, and large lakes, especially for the purposes of navigation ...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- - a section of hydrology dedicated to the description of water bodies and their individual parts ...
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- - 1) a section of land hydrology, dedicated to the description of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and their individual parts with a qualitative and quantitative description of their position, physical and geographical conditions, regime and use ...
Big encyclopedic dictionary
- - R., D., Pr....
Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
- - hydrography / fia,...
merged. Apart. Through a hyphen. Dictionary-reference
- - HYDROGRAPHY, -and, wives. The branch of hydrology that studies the waters of the earth's surface...
Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
- - HYDROGRAPHY, hydrography, pl. no, female . Department of hydrology, which deals with the description of water spaces and their mapping ...
hydrography
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
hydrography
hydrography, pl. no, w. (from the Greek hydor - water and grapho - I write). Department of hydrology, dealing with the description of water spaces and their mapping.
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova.
hydrography
And, well. The branch of hydrology that studies the waters of the earth's surface.
adj. hydrographic, th, th.
New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
hydrography
The branch of hydrology that studies and describes the waters of the earth's surface.
The state of surface waters territory.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
hydrography
HYDROGRAPHY (from hydro... and... graphy)
a section of land hydrology devoted to the description of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and their individual parts with a qualitative and quantitative description of their position, physiographic conditions, regime and use.
A science that studies shipping lanes, forms of the bed of the oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, canals and develops ways to improve shipping lanes.
Hydrography
(from hydro ... and ... graphics), a section of hydrology devoted to the description of water bodies and their individual parts.
Section of land hydrology, the main task of which is the study and description of individual water bodies: rivers, lakes, reservoirs (and their combination in a particular territory), their position and physical and geographical conditions, size and regime. The study of individual water bodies makes it possible to identify patterns in the distribution of land waters, to understand the features of their regime. Geography is based on patterns established by general hydrology and physical geography. The tasks of hydrogeography also include the study of changes in the regime of water bodies caused by human activities. The most complete information about hydrogeology of the land of the Soviet Union is contained in the reference books Resources of Surface Waters of the USSR.
A branch of oceanology that deals with the description of the subdivisions of the oceans. The tasks of marine hydrogeography also include a complex of scientific disciplines that study the hydrometeorological regime, geodetic fields in the World Ocean, the nature of the soils and coasts of the oceans and seas, and the dynamics of the topography of the seabed.
In Russia, the organizational formation of the Hydrographic Service was carried out in 1718 by the establishment of Admiralty Collegiums, which were entrusted with being in charge of this aspect of maritime affairs. In 1827, the Directorate of the General Hydrographer was established, which in 1885 was transformed into the Main Hydrographic Directorate.
G.'s development abroad began in the first half of the 18th century. ≈in France (1720), Great Britain and Holland (1737); in the USA since 1830. The development of scientific geology in Russia and the USSR is associated with the names of A. A. Tillo, A. I. Vilkitsky, Yu. M. Shokalsky, V. M. Rodevich, E. V. Bliznyak, and I. F. Molodykh etc. See also Hydrographic Service.
Lit .: Bliznyak E. V., Ovchinnikov K. M., Bykov V. D., Hydrography of the rivers of the USSR, M., 1945; Maksimov G. S., Hydrography as a science, in the book: Uchenye zapiski higher Arctic Naval School, v 1, L. ≈ M., 1949; his, Hydrographic inventory, M. ≈ L., 1949; Sheikin P. A., Hydrographic work on the rivers, Leningrad, 1949; Manual on reconnaissance hydrographic research of rivers, L., 1949; Davydov L.K. Hydrography of the USSR, vol. 1≈2, Leningrad, 1953≈55; Glushkov V. G., Questions of theory and methods of hydrological research, M., 1961; Belobrov A.P., Hydrography of the sea, M., 1964; Sokolov A. A., Hydrography of the USSR, L., 1964.
A. I. Chebotarev, K. G. Tikhotsky.
Wikipedia
Hydrography
Hydrography is a branch of applied science that deals with the measurement and description of the physical characteristics of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes and rivers, and predicting their change over time, with the main goal of ensuring the safety of navigation and to support all other maritime activities, including economic development , security and defense, scientific research and environmental protection.
Examples of the use of the word hydrography in the literature.
I finally managed to contribute to hydrography Arctic, enrich and refine its map!
Almost all of them are remarkable in that they have contributed both to geography and to the science of the sea - oceanography and hydrography- valuable contributions.
We didn't understand histology, We didn't understand hydrology, hydrography, geography, topography, topology.
But they give me the opportunity to replenish, or rather clarify, my knowledge - in the field of medicine, surgery, history, geography, botany, mineralogy, conchology, geodesy, chemistry, physics, mechanics and hydrography: well, I agree and, I assure you, I will not force myself to ask!
Now Mikhail Mikhailovich is writing a book about the military hydrography during the war years, new articles on oceanology, and when he sits at his desk, his head stubbornly tilted forward, as in the old faded photograph, which depicts him in a fighting stance, his chin also lowered down - a member of the Leningrad State University heavyweight boxing team weight in the thirty-sixth year.
Small, energetic and mobile as black mercury, she liked the lieutenant colonel, and even more liked the idea of trying ground geophysics on ships of the military hydrography.
By listing the practices hydrography, Uncle Antifer, no doubt, wanted to show his interlocutor how great is the distance separating the captain of the coastal voyage from the owner of the gabara.
His name is mentioned more than once in books devoted to the history of the Military hydrography and the Naval Mapping Service.
For many centuries, since the birth of maritime navigation, the ruthlessness of the sea element has directed human thought to improve the design of the ship's hull, its mechanisms, navigational instruments, cartography, and also to study hydrography, meteorology and other sciences related to navigation.
Having made his way to an appointment with the highest naval commanders, among whom were the head of the military hydrography, commander of the Baltic Fleet and even Commander-in-Chief, she convinced them of the need to put magnetic and other geophysical equipment on military oceanographic ships.
I remember how in 1966, together with my then boss Nikolai Nikolayevich Trubyatchinsky, in dank autumn weather, we arrived on a business trip to Nakhodka, to the Military hydrography to arrange a joint expedition.
BORDERS - the establishment of the line of the state border, carried out on the basis of an appropriate international treaty, carried out according to maps, as a rule, large-scale, with a detailed depiction of the relief on them, hydrography, populated objects.
HYDROGRAPHY
HYDROGRAPHY
(Greek, from hydor - water, and graphein - to write). Part of physical geography, which has the subject of describing waters, the earth's surface, as well as surveying coasts and islands, studying the topography of the bottom of water basins, drawing up maps, etc.
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .
HYDROGRAPHY
Greek, from hydor, water, and graphein, to write. Description of the waters of the area.
Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .
HYDROGRAPHY
description of the seas, rivers and lakes, their depths, coasts, etc. from the point of view of their suitability for navigation.
A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .
HYDROGRAPHY
a part of geography that has as its subject a description of waters (rivers, lakes, seas, etc.).
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Pavlenkov F., 1907 .
Hydrography
(cm. hydro ... + ... graphics) a section of hydrology that deals with surveying and mapping water bodies, as well as compiling their descriptions such as sailing directions; It is subdivided into land hydrography (description of rivers, lakes, reservoirs in a specific area) and world ocean hydrography, which is a section of oceanology.
New dictionary of foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .
Hydrography
hydrography, pl. no, w. [ hydro and grapho - I write]. Department of hydrology, dealing with the description of water spaces and their mapping.
A large dictionary of foreign words. - Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .
Hydrography
Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .
Synonyms:
See what "HYDROGRAPHY" is in other dictionaries:
Hydrography… Spelling Dictionary
hydrography- and, well. hydrographie f., German. Hydrographic. 1. In hydrology, the area of study and description of the waters of the earth's surface. BAS 2. Ancient Russian hydrography. 1733. Vitovt 333. Hydrography is the description of waters. Tat. East 1499. Hydrography containing theories and ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
- (Hydrography) translated from Greek as a description of the waters of the earth's surface, usually this word means a set of questions on the study of oceans, seas, lakes and rivers, especially for the purposes of navigation. In our country, the word G. is understood ... ... Marine Dictionary
- (from hydro ... and ... graphics), 1) the science of shipping lanes, the forms of the bottom of the oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, canals, developing ways to improve shipping lanes. 2) The section of land hydrology, dedicated to the description of the physical geographical ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
- (from hydro ... and ... graphy) 1) a section of land hydrology dedicated to the description of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and their individual parts with a qualitative and quantitative description of their position, physical and geographical conditions, regime and use. 2) Science, … … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
HYDROGRAPHY, a science devoted to the description of the water bodies of the Earth. Navigational charts were created starting from the 13th century, but they accurately depicted only the coastline. Depicting areas of the ocean, remote from the coast, began only in the 19th century. Now… … Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
HYDROGRAPHY, hydrography, pl. no, female (from Greek hydor water and grapho I write). Department of hydrology, dealing with the description of water spaces and their mapping. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
HYDROGRAPHY, and, for women. The branch of hydrology that studies the waters of the earth's surface. | adj. hydrographic, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
Exist., number of synonyms: 2 water description (2) geohydrography (1) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary
HYDROGRAPHY- (from hydro ... and ... graphics), a section of hydrology that describes the waters of the earth's surface, seas, lakes, rivers, etc. by studying and mapping their forms and physical features, depths, seabed, shallows, tides, currents, etc. ... ... Ecological dictionary
HYDROGRAPHY -and; well. [from Greek. hydōr - water and graphō - I write]. 1. A branch of hydrology dealing with the study and description of the waters of the earth's surface. 2. what. The state of surface waters territory. G. European part of Russia. ◁ Hydrographic, -th, -th. G-th expedition. Mr. work. G card. Explanatory Dictionary of Kuznetsov
When depicting hydrography on general geographic maps, specific tasks are set for the selection of rivers and other water bodies plotted on maps, as well as for the nature of the generalization of the very image of hydrographic objects, carried out in connection with a change in the scale of mapping.
The process of generalization of hydrography is subject to certain requirements for the transfer of the structure of various river systems, the nature of the sinuosity of rivers, types of sea coasts, the shape of lakes, and the characteristic features of the distribution of hydrographic objects (rivers, lakes, canals, reservoirs, and other water bodies) across the territory. The characteristics of hydrographic features of the area indicated here are mandatory for displaying on educational maps of all types, regardless of their scale, but with varying degrees of generalization (selection of hydrographic objects and generalization of their image).
In connection with the generalization being carried out, only the comparative density of the hydrographic objects of the mapped territory can be transferred during compilation.
sea shores
When mapping sea coasts, the task is to display their types (Fig. 1), which is achieved by depicting the planned position of the coastline and showing the coastal strip of land and sea characteristic of each type of coast (coastal islands, coastal shallows and shoals, dry and steep coasts, beaches, coastal bars, etc.)
The coastline on educational maps is depicted with a significant thickening (compared to reference maps). Therefore, when compiling the coastline on the training map, the conditions of the image in relation to the source material must be determined.
but. Fjord type of coast
b. Skerry type of shore
in. Estuary type of coast
Fig. 1 Image of coasts of various types on maps of various scales and for various purposes (on the right - on the educational map, on the left - on the reference map)
The thickening of the conventional sign of the coastline is made towards the land, which ensures that the correct ratio of land and sea is maintained. However, in some cases, with a large indentation of the coast, it is advisable to thicken the lines on both sides of the sign axis.
Generalization consists in conveying the nature of the indentation of the coast and consists in exaggerating typical features and excluding small details (Fig. 1-a). When compiling, for example, a fjord type of coast, it is necessary to express its features - the deep incision of fjords into the land and their branching, a significant number of islands in the coastal strip. The width of the fjords on the training map must be at least 1mm. Small fjords exclude, show the features of their branching, sharp turns and closures, due to the mountainous nature of the coast. All islands expressed at the scale of the map and some of the small islands typical of this type of coast should be shown using filled contours (not just dots).
When compiling skerry shores (Fig. 1 -b), the training map should reflect the large indentation of the coastline, the presence of numerous bays and straits; islands are shown, expressed on the scale of the map, which are depicted by filled figures or figured points. Small islands are applied to identify the area of their distribution.
When compiling estuary-type coasts on training maps (Fig. 1-c), the coastline symbol is thickened towards the land, so narrow spits and channels are expressed in one line.
lakes
The generalization of the image of lakes in the preparation of educational physical maps is carried out in the general case by selecting the lakes shown on the maps and generalizing their outlines. As a rule, the selection of lakes is carried out among small lakes.
An important requirement of generalization is to display the shape of the lakes, the nature of their coastline, and the degree of its indentation. For large lakes, the requirements for the generalization of the image of the coastline correspond to the conditions for the generalization of the coastline of the seas. The nature of the coasts is fully revealed with the help of the correct image of the coastal strip of land and water space, connections with the river network.
When depicting small lakes, the outlines of their shape are emphasized by exaggeration and slightly exaggerated (by the thickness of the line) sizes.
Basic requirements for drawing up the coastline of the seas, lakes, reservoirs:
1. A clear separation of land and sea.
2. Correct and visual transfer of the type of sea coasts.
3. Image of the main and significant lakes and reservoirs, display of their geographical location, size, shape.
4. Preservation of the relative degree of detail in accordance with the purpose and scale of the map.
The coastline of lakes and reservoirs is applied taking into account the type of coast and their outlines, its thickness is 0.5 mm. When depicting small lakes, the coastline should be 0.4 mm thick. The thickening of the coastline should be carried out only towards the land. Lakes are plotted from an area of 4-5 mm 2 or more on a map scale. In some cases, for example, when lakes accumulate, it is allowed to apply lakes with 2 mm 2 or even less, including their dot representation. Since it is necessary to transfer the area of the lake district. By quality, lake water is divided into fresh and salty.
Rivers
When depicting rivers on maps of various scales (topographic and small-scale general geographical), general initial requirements are guided, which can be specified for maps of different types and corresponding scales. These requirements are formulated as tasks for displaying the following general characteristic features of the river network: the features of the planned image of rivers, the density of the river network on the territory, the degree of dissection of the area due to the river network.
The maps display types of river systems - radial, lattice, tree-like, parallel, etc. (Fig. 3).
To characterize river systems, it is important to show the planned position and mutual distribution of the rivers included in the system, the density of river distribution characteristic of a given river system, and the nature of their meandering. These characteristics are displayed on maps of different scales, but with varying degrees of detail. Generalization is carried out by carrying out an appropriate selection of rivers, which ensures the display of systems and the correct characterization of the density of the river network, as well as by generalizing the sinuosity of the channels and a clear transmission of the main turns of the rivers. All the ways of generalization indicated here are interconnected and are carried out on the basis of the requirements for the content of maps of different types and the image of the river network.
The selection of rivers is carried out, as a rule, according to the established qualifications. In the process of editorial development of the map, the length of the river (on the scale of the map) is established, which is the limit for mapping.
The conditions for a possible deviation from the main qualification are determined due to the need to express the characteristics of the river network in terms of density or structure of the system.
The density of the hydrographic network of various regions of the mapped territory is preliminarily determined. Determination of the density of the river network is carried out in the process of editorial and preparatory work by carrying out appropriate cartometric actions.
The density of the river network is characterized by the ratio of the sum of the lengths of all rivers in a given area (in km) to its area (km 2) and is expressed by the formula
where K is the density of the river network, l is the length of the rivers, P is the area of the region.
A certain dependence of the density of rivers on the composition of the rivers (according to their lengths) included in the river network of the region has also been established, which consists in the fact that the average density of the river network is characterized by an approximately equal ratio of long and short rivers in the territory. The density of the river network increases due to the increase in the number of small rivers. The low density of the river network is typical for areas with a predominance of long rivers (Fig. 2).
When depicting rivers on educational maps, the task is to identify basins and display their nature. This problem is solved by rigorous identification of the sources of rivers and the correct selection of tributaries that transmit river systems.
The thickening of the symbol of the river is made in both directions from the axis of the river depicted on the map material. An exception is allowed only if it is necessary to convey the position relative to other elements of the map content (cartographic grid, coastline, etc.).
Fig.2 Example of different river network density
The thickening of rivers should mainly be carried out from the source to the middle of the channel, and further to the mouth, the thickening should be insignificant. Depending on the length, width and significance of the rivers, their thickness varies at the source from 0.4 to 0.55 mm, at the mouth - from 0.7 to 4.0 mm. If the river at the source is 0.5 mm, and at the mouth 1.5 mm, then the thickening goes up to 1.3 mm to the middle of the river, from the middle to the source the width is increased by only 0.2 mm.
Drawing rivers with thick lines requires a certain skill (Fig. 4). It is impossible to unnecessarily straighten and bend the riverbeds. When generalizing the riverbed, it is necessary to ensure that adjacent bends are clearly read without merging with each other. Sharp corners and turns convey carefully and clearly. If there are uncharacteristic small bends on the rivers, generalization should be carried out along the midline.
Rivers are plotted from a length of 5-6 cm or more on a map scale. The subordination of rivers is conveyed by the difference in the thickness of the lines depicting the channel of the rivers, and the direction of the flow is conveyed by a gradual thickening from the source to the mouth.
The main requirements for the image of rivers on the educational wall map:
1. A clear image of river systems, taking into account the density of the river network.
2. Selection of the main rivers, a clear display of their subordination.
3. Mandatory drawing of all rivers mentioned in textbooks
e. a quote from a document or a brief description of an interesting event. The inscription can be placed anywhere in the document. To change the formatting of a caption containing catch quotes, use the Caption Tools tab.]
a - tree-like; b - pinnate; c - stem; g - lattice; e - parallel; e - radial
Fig.3 Types of river systems
Navigable rivers are depicted in two lines with a gap of 0.3-0.4 mm.
Fig.4 Compilation of rivers with a thickened line
On rivers with a length of 20 cm or more, on a map scale, sign the marks of water edges.
All rivers with a length of 10-12 cm or more are signed by their name. Be sure to sign the rivers mentioned in school textbooks.
RELIEF
The image of the relief on educational physical maps should have high clarity, expressiveness, and plasticity. It should provide a correct idea of the main forms of the depicted relief, its absolute and relative heights, the structure and extent of mountain ranges, the size and shape of the areas occupied by plains and lowlands, and also allow students to build hypsometric profiles.
When compiling the relief, reasonable generalization is of great importance, aimed at displaying the characteristic features of the dissection of the terrain, identifying the types of relief, and the nature of the slope profile. The possibility of transferring the nature of the relief depends on identifying the features of its structure and determining the generalization conditions for expressing typical features, as a rule, in a smaller number of forms with a more sparse section of the relief.
To correctly display the nature of the slopes in terms of their shape and steepness, the forms of the slope profile are studied from the cartographic material, which determine the magnitude of the corresponding foundations, with the help of which these forms are expressed.
The relief is depicted by contour lines, layered hypsometric coloring and hillshade. The choice of the scale of heights and depths, the color design of hypsometric coloring and hillshade will be developed with the calculation of the three-dimensional perception of relief forms on the laws of color and shadow plasticity.
For all educational physical maps, uniform principles for choosing scales of heights and depths have been developed, their specific recommendations have been given.
For relatively large-scale educational physical maps, height scales are recommended that provide the proper completeness and detail of the relief image. So, for example, horizontal lines are drawn:
In low-lying and flat areas (up to 200 m above sea level) after 50 and 100 m;
In mountainous areas - after 200, 300, 500 m.
When developing specific height scales for a particular map, characteristic leading horizontals are necessarily identified and included in the height scale, providing the necessary clarity for drawing the most important and typical forms of the depicted relief.
The image of the relief is supplemented by elevation marks and inscriptions of the names of orographic objects.
Elevation marks are selected on the basis of no more than 2 marks per quarter I. dm maps according to the "List of elevation marks on the territory of Russia".
Compilation from a blue photocopy allows the performer to fully focus on the selection and generalization of landforms. Compilation is carried out not on the entire area at once, but on separate working sections, planned depending on the nature of the relief. For example, they separately make up a mountain range from the foot to the ridge, interfluve, etc.
Within the territory to be mapped, it is necessary, first of all, to decide what basic relief forms should be obtained on the map being compiled (mountain ranges, separately located peaks, large valleys, watersheds, etc.). For this purpose, the main structural (orographic) lines of these landforms (ridge crests, valley thalwegs, foothills of mountain ledges, etc.) are outlined on the original original. Separately located mountain peaks mark the highest points. Then, on these breaklines in the accepted section and taking into account the generalization of the figure, the position of the contour lines is outlined.
Further, along the marked lines and points, only the leading contour lines are first built, outlining the mountain peaks, the foot of the ridges, the main watersheds, as well as the horizontal lines that are far apart from each other to the point of their convergence. This creates a system of main contour lines, as if outlining the contours of the main landforms mapped. After that, all other horizontal lines are completely drawn.
When generalizing the relief pattern, first of all, attention is paid to the structure (basic structure) of the relief, its leading forms, the degree of horizontal and vertical dissection.
Particular attention is paid to displaying the nature of the peaks, the steepness and profile of the slopes, the transverse and longitudinal profiles of the valleys. When selecting valleys, first of all, the largest and most significant valleys are drawn, deeply cutting into the slopes of mountain ranges, opposite valleys forming characteristic saddles, valleys of large rivers, etc.
Along the side valleys (tributaries of the rivers), the contour lines that outline the thalwegs of these valleys t should not be drawn higher than along the main river.
When drawing the slopes of mountain ranges and hills, the contour lines are generalized from the bottom to the ridge and peaks.
When selecting valleys in places of excluded generalization valleys, the horizontal is drawn with a slightly noticeable deflection.
All contour lines are given proper consistency. Particular attention is paid to the coordination of the relief pattern with the hydrographic objects plotted on the map.
When drawing a relief, for the purpose of its greatest visibility and expressiveness, a shift of horizontals, a significant generalization, exaggeration and amalgamation of small, but characteristic relief forms, is allowed.
The shift of horizontals when drawing a flat relief is allowed up to half the section, and in mountainous areas - up to the whole section. In this case, the horizontal shift must be justified and expedient in all cases.
A fully developed generalized drawing of hydrography and relief, after viewing on the monitor screen by the teacher and proofreading, is printed on a printer.
EXAMPLES OF IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RELIEF