Project verbal portraits of Russian peasants. The project "Verbal and pictorial portraits of Russian peasants" (based on stories from the cycle "Notes of a Hunter" I

In 1847, Sovremennik published an essay “Khor and Kalinich”, which formed the basis of the Notes. He was successful and therefore Turg. began to write similar essays, to-rye in 1852 came out otd. book. In "Hora and K." Turg. acted as an innovator: he portrayed the Russian. people as a great force suffering from serfdom. Nicholas I was furious when he saw the book - when the essays were published separately, it was normal, but when the author placed them in a book in a strict order, they became anti-serfdom. character -> the composition of the "Notes" is very important, this book is yavl. not a collection, but a whole product. Heroes of Turg. one with nature, and images merge with each other. Antiserfdom. pathos of the conclusion in the depiction of strong folk characters, which spoke of the illegality of serfdom; to Gogol's gallery of dead souls, the author added living ones. Although the peasants are slaves, they are internally free. From "Khorya and K." at the beginning to "Forest and Steppe" at the end this motif grows. One image of a peasant clings to another. This creates an integral picture of the life of the people, the lawlessness of the landowners. At Turg. there is such a technique: he depicts peasants, whom the landowners force them to do unnecessary things: in the essay “Lgov” a certain Kuzma Suchok is depicted, whom the master of 7 years forces to fish in a pond where it is not found. The French are depicted (Lezhen in Odnodvorets Ovsyannikov, Count Blangia in Lgov), to-rykh. the government made nobles, although they were all fools. Dr. example: in "Two landowners" it is told how one landowner ordered to sow poppies everywhere, because. it is more expensive - this is the undermining of the foundations of the cross. about-va. Turg. indicates that the tyranny of the nobility leads to the fact that many peasants began to lose their opinion, completely obey the opinion of the master. The image of nature is important in the book. Turg. showed 2 Russia - "live" (peasant) and "dead" (official). All characters belong to one or the other pole. All "peasant" images are given by Ch. we will produce a collection - "Khorem and K.". Khor is businesslike and practical, Kalinich is poetic. Burmister Sofron takes over from Khory his worst qualities (selfishness), and Ovsyannikov's one-palace takes over his best (practicality, tolerance for reasonable novelty). This shows the change in character, its development in different people. Kalinych's successors are Yermolai (but he is closer to nature than Kalinych) and Kasyan (in him "naturalness" is absolute). Ch. the linking image is the hunter-storyteller. Although he is a nobleman, he is first and foremost a hunter, which brings him closer to the people. It is important that some "+" nobles also for the author yavl. "the power of Russia". In Notes of a Hunter, Turgenev spoke out against serfdom and its defenders. However, the significance of the "Notes of a Hunter", as well as the significance of "Dead Souls", is not only in direct protest against serfdom, but also in the general picture of Russian life that has developed under the conditions of serfdom. The fundamental difference between the "Notes of a Hunter" and Gogol's poem was that to the Gogol's gallery of dead souls Turgenev added a gallery of living souls, taken primarily from the peasant environment. Those people, about whom Gogol reflected in the famous lyrical digression, stood up to their full height in the Notes of a Hunter. Real people appeared next to the Stegunovs and Zverkovs - Kalinich, Yermolai, Yakov Turk, peasant children. Next to the "statesman" Penochkin was a truly statesman - Khor. The false "humanity" of the landowner was opposed by the harsh humanity of Biryuk and the poetic humanity of Kasyan. Enthusiastic lovers of the arts, landowners-patrons, these, according to Turgenev, "clubs smeared with tar", found their true value next to such a true connoisseur of art as the Wild Master, and the stupid Andrei Belovzorov, Tatyana Borisovna's nephew, artist and conqueror of hearts, caricature in itself, became even more caricature when compared with the great artist of the people Yakov Turk.

It is also important that many peasant characters in The Hunter's Notes turned out to be not only carriers of positive spiritual qualities: they are depicted as carriers of the best features of the Russian national character. This, above all, was Turgenev's protest against serfdom. Turgenev in connection with the "Notes of a Hunter" was repeatedly accused of idealizing the peasantry and retreating from realism. In fact, showing the high spiritual qualities of people from the people, emphasizing and sharpening the best features of the Russian peasants, Turgenev developed the traditions of realistic art and created typical images filled with great political content; defending the serfs, Turgenev at the same time defended the national dignity of the Russian people. Choir and Kalinich embodies the combination of practicality with poetry in the Russian warehouse of the soul; the presence in the Russian people of such people as Khor serves the author as proof of the national nature of the activities of Peter I. The folk humanistic philosophy of Kasyan was inspired by his contemplation of his native land and native nature: “After all, I never went anywhere! And I went to Romyon, and to Sinbirsk, the glorious city, and to Moscow itself, golden domes; I went to the Oka-nurse, and to the Tsna-dove, and to the Volga-mother, and I saw a lot of people, good peasants, and visited honest cities ...

And I'm not the only sinner ... many other peasants in bast shoes walk, roam the world, looking for the truth ... » (I, 116). Russian nature and folk poetry form the worldview of peasant children; “a Russian, truthful, ardent soul sounded and breathed” in the singing of Yakov Turk, and the very spirit and content of his song were again inspired by Russian nature: endless distance" (I, 214). That is why such close attention of the author in "Notes of a Hunter" is attracted by the forces and elements of Russian nature.

Nature in the "Notes of a Hunter" is not a background, not a decorative picture, not a lyrical landscape, but precisely an elemental force, which the author studies in detail and unusually closely. Nature lives its own special life, which the author seeks to study and describe with all the fullness accessible to the human eye and ear. In Bezhin Meadow, before starting to tell about people, Turgenev draws the life of nature during one July day: he shows her history for that day, tells what it is like in the early morning, at noon, in the evening; what type, shape and color clouds have at different periods of the day, what is the color of the sky and its appearance during this day, how the weather changes during the day, etc. Turgenev introduces the exact names of plants and animals into his landscapes. In the story "Death" for one paragraph of half a page, we meet a list of birds: hawks, falcons, woodpeckers, thrushes, orioles, robins, siskins, warblers, finches; plants: violets, lilies of the valley, strawberries, russula, volvyanki, milk mushrooms, oak trees, fly agaric.

Animals are depicted with the same close attention, only their "portraits" are given with greater intimacy, with their good-natured approach to a person. “The cow went to the door, breathed noisily twice; the dog growled at her with dignity; the pig passed by, thoughtfully grunting ... "("Khor and Kalinich"; I, 12). In describing the individual properties of a dog, Turgenev is especially inventive and virtuoso. Suffice it to recall Yermolai's dog, Valetka, whose remarkable property "was his incomprehensible indifference to everything in the world. ... If it were not about the dog, I would use the word: disappointment” (I, 20).

Nature in the "Notes of a Hunter" actively influences the heroes of the work - ordinary people and the narrator-author. Sometimes she takes on a mysterious appearance that inspires a person with a sense of fear and despondency, but most often in the “Notes of a Hunter” nature subdues a person not with her mystery and hostility, not with her indifference, but with her mighty vitality. Such is the nature in the story "Forest and Steppe", which closes the cycle. The story about the forest and the steppe with various, important and solemn events in their lives, with the change of seasons, day and night, heat and thunderstorms, is at the same time a story about a person whose spiritual world is determined by this natural life. In this story, nature inspires a person with an inexplicable spiritual silence, then a strange anxiety, then a longing for the distance, then, most often, cheerfulness, strength and joy.

Not only peasants are endowed with national-Russian features in the "Notes of a Hunter"; Russian people by nature are among Turgenev and some landowners who escaped the corrupting influence of serfdom. Pyotr Petrovich Karataev is no less Russian than the peasants; No wonder the story about him was originally called "Rusak". And he is also a victim of serfdom: he was ruined by love for someone else's serf girl, whom he cannot marry because of the wild tyranny of her owner. National traits of character are also emphasized in the moral character of Chertop-hanov. He is magnificent in his natural pride, independence and instinctive sense of justice. He is a landowner, but he is not a serf-owner. Such is Tatyana Borisovna, a patriarchal landowner, but at the same time a simple being with a straightforward Russian heart. According to Turgenev, serfdom itself is anti-national. The landowners, who are not typical serf-owners, appear to him as the living force of Russian society. He directs his blows not against the nobility as a whole, but only against the feudal landowners. Unlike the revolutionary democrats, Turgenev hoped for the Russian nobility, trying to find healthy elements in it.

6. "Rudin" Turgenev's first novel.
Rudin is Turgenev's first novel. Everyone knows this, but, oddly enough for the modern reader, Turgenev did not know this when he wrote and printed Rudin. In 1856, in the journal Sovremennik, where Rudin was first published, it was called a story. Only in 1880, when he published a new edition of his works, did Turgenev raise Rudin to the high rank of a novel. It may seem that whether a work is called a short story or whether it is called a novel, the difference is not great. Readers sometimes believe that a novel is a big story, and a story is a small novel. But this was not the case for Turgenev. In fact, "Spring Waters" is larger than "Rudin" in terms of volume, but this is a story, not a novel. The point, then, is not in volume, but in something more important. In the preface to his novels, Turgenev said: “... I tried, to the best of my strength and skill, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody in the proper types and what Shakespeare calls “the bogi and pressure of time” (“the very image and pressure time)", and that rapidly changing physiognomy of the Russian people of the cultural layer, which mainly served as the subject of my observations. Of course, there were typical images in Turgenev's stories, and people of their country and their time were depicted there, but the focus was on the private life of people, the excitement and anxiety of their personal existence. Unlike short stories, each novel by Turgenev was some significant episode in the mental life of Russian society, and in sum, Turgenev's novels reflect the history of the ideological quest of educated Russian people from the forties to the seventies of the last century.

The hero of Turgenev's first novel, Dmitry Rudin, has long been nicknamed "an extra person", although he is not named by this name in the novel. This term comes from Turgenev's story "The Diary of a Superfluous Man" (1850). However, the hero of this story bears very little resemblance to Rudin. He is called superfluous only because of his unfortunateness, because, immersed in himself, eaten away by painful suspiciousness and irritability, he overlooked his life and happiness. He is superfluous in the truest sense of the word, and this is not at all what Turgenev's contemporaries had in mind when, having rethought his name, they started talking about "superfluous people" as a characteristic and significant phenomenon of Russian life. Much closer to Rudin is the hero of the story "Hamlet of the Shchigrovsky District" (1850) from the "Notes of a Hunter". This is a deep and serious person, he thinks about the fate of his country and about what role he himself can play in Russian life. He is philosophically educated and intelligent, but he is cut off from the life of his native country, he does not know its needs and needs, he suffers bitterly because of his uselessness and bitterly laughs at his groundlessness. However, the very desire to find a place in Russian life seems to Turgenev a manifestation of living power. Humiliating himself, the hero is not humiliated therefore by the author. This is one of those educated young nobles who cannot find a place for themselves either among practical landowners absorbed in their household, or among officials, or in military service. They are too smart for that, too tall. But they cannot find another occupation that would be worthy of them, and are therefore doomed to inaction. Their position is painful, they gradually get used to it, and in their suffering, in dissatisfaction with themselves, they begin to see a sign of the exclusivity of nature, and in constant self-humiliation, in the ability to meticulously and severely analyze their personality and find in themselves shortcomings and vices generated by forced idleness, they are accustomed to finally find bitter consolation.

In the conditions of the time when Turgenev's stories were written, this meant that the socio-political system of Russia, serfdom, the oppression of the autocracy did not open up opportunities for the individual to enter the expanse of public life, and thinking, educated people were forced to focus on themselves. This is the reason for their one-sided development: they were not prepared, or rather, by the will of circumstances, they were not admitted to the living historical cause. That is why, according to the hero, these people are guilty without guilt. However, the point for Turgenev was not only whether these people were guilty or innocent, but also whether they were needed for Russia, whether they benefited their country. A Russian girl, a “district young lady,” is anxiously and hopefully waiting for the appearance of such a person who could lead her out of the narrow circle of domestic life with her daily worries. He appeared, and it seems to her that truth itself speaks through his lips, she is passionate and ready to follow him, no matter how difficult his path may be. “Everything - happiness, love, and thought - everything flooded with him at once ...” Love and thought - this is a characteristic combination for Turgenev, explaining the mental structure of his heroine. For the Turgenev girl, the word "love" means a lot - for her it is the awakening of the mind and heart; her image is filled with Turgenev with a broad meaning and becomes, as it were, the embodiment of young Russia, waiting for her chosen one. Will he justify her hopes, will he become the person that his native country needs - that was the main question. In "Correspondence" he was put, the answer was given in "Rudin". "Correspondence" stands on the eve of Turgenev's novel. Much has already been explained here, it was necessary to sum up the artistic results. "Rudin", published in the same year as "Correspondence", was the result of a whole series of stories and stories by Turgenev about the "superfluous man". Contemporaries immediately drew attention to this, they felt the generalizing nature of the work, and even earlier than Turgenev himself, they began to call it a novel.

The main character, Dmitry Nikolaevich Rudin, is not only classified as smart and educated people of the noble circle, as it was in previous stories - in the novel his cultural pedigree is accurately indicated. Not so long ago, he belonged to the philosophical circle of Pokorsky, in which he played a significant role. There formed his views and concepts, his attitude to reality, his manner of thinking and reasoning. Contemporaries easily recognized in the circle of Pokorsky the circle of N.V. Stankevich, which arose in Moscow in the early 1930s and played an important role in the history of Russian social thought. After the collapse of the Decembrist movement, when progressive political ideology was persecuted and suppressed, the emergence of philosophical interests among educated youth was of particular importance. No matter how abstract philosophical thought may be, it still ultimately explains life, seeks to find its general laws, indicate the ideal of man and the ways to achieve it; it speaks of beauty in life and art, of man's place in nature and in society. Young people who united around Stankevich paved the way from general philosophical questions to an understanding of contemporary problems, from explaining life, they moved on to the idea of ​​the need to change it.

Remarkable young men entered this circle; among them, besides the head of Stankevich's circle, were Vissarion Belinsky, Mikhail Bakunin, Konstantin Aksakov and some other young people, not so talented, but, in any case, outstanding. Charming and pure-hearted, Stankevich, an unusually and diversely gifted man, philosopher and poet, united everyone. Stankevich passed away earlier than others (he lived for less than 27 years), published about thirty poems and the tragedy in verse "Vasily Shuisky", but after his death, friends spoke about his personality and his ideas, his correspondence was published, no less significant in content than other philosophical treatises. What Belinsky meant for Russian literature and social thought is known to all. Konstantin Aksakov, having diverged in views with his friends, became one of the most important figures of the Slavophile trend. Mikhail Bakunin rightly had a reputation in Stankevich's circle as a deep connoisseur of philosophy. Having gone abroad in 1840, he became a member of the international revolutionary movement and a theorist of Russian populism and anarchism. The interesting and complex personality of Bakunin is of particular interest to us, since, according to contemporaries and Turgenev himself, some of the character traits of the young Bakunin were reflected in the image of Rudin. Of course, the artistic image of great writers is never an exact copy of the person who served as the impetus for its creation. The appearance of a real person is modified in the spirit of the artistic concept of the entire work, supplemented by the features of other people who are similar in character, habits, views, social status, and turns into a generalized artistic type. So it was in Turgenev's novel. Pokorsky vividly and closely resembled Stankevich, but it was not only Stankevich, the appearance of Belinsky also shone through in him. Rudin resembled Bakunin, but it was not only Bakunin, although the features of the psychological similarity of the hero with the prototype were striking. Bakunin had a desire to play the first roles, there was a love for the pose, for the phrase, there was a panache that sometimes bordered on narcissism. Friends sometimes complained about his arrogance, about his tendency, though from the best of intentions, to interfere in the private lives of his friends. They said about him that he was a man with a wonderful head, but without a heart. As we see later, all this was somehow reflected in the image of Dmitry Rudin, and at the same time, these were features not only of Bakunin, but also of other people of his circle and upbringing. In a word, Rudin is not a portrait of one person, but a collective, generalized, typical image.

The plot of the novel refers to the beginning of the 40s, the ending is exactly dated - June 26, 1848, when Rudin dies on a revolutionary barricade in Paris. Turgenev's novel (and this is typical not only for Rudin) is constructed in an unusually simple and strict manner. Despite the fact that the events in the novel take place over several years, the action in it is compressed to a few days. The day of Rudin's arrival at the Lasunskaya estate and the next morning, then after a two-month break - Rudin's explanation with Natalya, the next morning - a meeting at Avdyukhin's pond, and on the same day Rudin leaves. The main action of the novel ends here, in essence, and then the results are already summed up. All the few secondary characters in the novel are directly or indirectly related to Rudin: some embody the everyday environment in which Rudin has to live, others discuss his personality, his actions, his mind and nature, and thus illuminate his image from different angles, from different points. vision. All the action of the novel, the sequence of episodes, plot twists and turns - everything is subordinated to the task of assessing the historical role of Rudin and people of his type.

The appearance of the protagonist is carefully prepared by a brief but exhaustively accurate description of the social environment in which he lives and with which he is in complex, most often hostile relations. Turgenev understands the environment very broadly - this is all of Russia in its then state: serfdom, severe poverty of the village, poverty, almost extinction. In the very first chapter of the novel, the landowner Lipina, stopping at the edge of the village near a dilapidated and low hut, inquires about the health of the hostess, who is “still alive”, but is unlikely to recover. The hut is crowded, stuffy and smoky, the compassionate landowner brought tea and sugar, but there is no samovar in the household, there is no one to look after the patient, it is too late to take him to the hospital. This is peasant Russia. And nearby, in the person of Lipina, Volintsev, Lezhnev, are landowners, kind, liberal-minded, striving to help the peasants (Lipina has a hospital). Right there, in the immediate vicinity, are landowners of a different warehouse, represented by Lasunskaya. We learn about it first from the words of Lezhnev. According to Lasunskaya, hospitals and schools in the countryside are all empty inventions: only personal charity is needed, for the sake of one's own soul, nothing more. So she argues, however, she is not alone. Clever Lezhnev understands that Lasunskaya is not alone, that she sings from someone else's voice. There are, therefore, teachers and ideologists of noble conservatism; all the Lasunskys in all the provinces and districts of the Russian Empire sing with their voices. Along with these main forces, figures immediately appear that represent their everyday environment: on the one hand, this is a freeloader and favorite of a wealthy landowner, and on the other, a commoner teacher living in the same environment, but a stranger, even in many ways hostile to her, is still instinctively. It is felt that only a pretext is needed for his repulsion from the inert environment to become a conscious conviction. So over the course of several pages, in just one chapter, the alignment of social forces is recreated, a social background arises against which individualities, personalities, and characters stand out in the subsequent narrative.

First of all, Daria Mikhailovna Lasunskaya appears: her appearance was prepared, as we remember, by Lezhnev’s judgment about her, now the reader gets acquainted with this noble and wealthy lady in detail and in detail. He learns the important facts of life and the main properties of the character of the secular lioness of former times and the former beauty, about whom the lyre once "rattled". The author talks about her in sparing words and with a slight touch of contemptuous irony - a sure sign that she exists for the author and for readers not by herself, not as a self-sufficient character, but only as a detail of the social background, as the personification of an environment hostile to the narrator and the main character, the appearance of which the reader expects. Figures of this purpose do not enjoy great rights in the narrative: they are not given a complex inner world, they are not surrounded by a lyrical atmosphere, the author does not analyze them, does not force them to gradually reveal their personality to the reader, he himself tells everything that is needed about them, moreover, he tells concisely and precisely, without elegiac reflections and poetic omissions.

Approximately the same method of depicting another character - Afrikan Semenovich Pigasov, although this figure is not without serious significance and has its own history in the work of Turgenev. The type of an irritated loser, embittered against everything and everyone, not believing in anything, a bilious clever man and a rhetorician interested Turgenev almost from the very beginning of his career. Such people at first glance oppose the environment and rise above it, but in fact these homegrown Mephistopheles are not at all higher than those people who are mocked, they are flesh from flesh and bone from bone of the same environment. Moreover, they often act in the unenviable role of jesters and freeloaders, even of the highest sort, and there is nothing surprising in this: fruitless skepticism, by its very nature, is dangerously related to buffoonery. In Turgenev's previous works, the closest thing to Pigasov in terms of general character and role in the narrative was Lupikhin from Hamlet of the Shchigrovsky district. Clever and evil, with a fleeting and caustic smile on his twisted lips, with impudent narrowed eyes and mobile features, he attracts attention at first with poisonous and bold mockery of the county world. However, as in Rudin, his true role is revealed very soon. This is nothing more than an embittered loser, this is mediocrity with clearly visible traits of a hanger-on. In addition, in both works, the true price of such a character immediately becomes clear when compared with the true hero of the story, who really, and not only outwardly stands out from the environment and in whose fate there is a genuine tragedy, and not those features of comic bad luck that Turgenev marks without regret. people of the Lupikha-Pigasov type. So, bringing Pigasov to the stage, Turgenev prepares a background against which Rudin should stand out. A skeptic will be opposed by an enthusiast, a funny loser - a tragic hero, a county talker - a talented speaker, amazingly owning the music of eloquence.

Following this, another antagonist of the protagonist, his rival in love, and the heroine of the novel appear in the novel. Her court will have to decide the question of the historical significance of a person of the Rudin type. With the advent of these characters, Turgenev's pen changes noticeably. He is in no hurry to talk about them, as if he is not interested in them at all. But this is always a sign of Turgenev's deep personal interest. He always looks at his favorite hero with a slow, intent gaze and forces the reader to carefully consider every word of the hero, his every gesture, his slightest movement. This applies in particular to Turgenev's heroines, in this case to Natalia. At first, we know absolutely nothing about her, except for her age, and besides the fact that she is sitting by the window at the embroidery frame. But the very first touch, noted by the author, imperceptibly disposes us in her favor. Pandalevsky, a favorite of Lasunskaya, plays the piano, Natalya listens to him with attention, but then, without listening to the end, she again gets to work. We guess from this short remark that she loves and feels music, but the playing of such a person as Pandalevsky cannot excite and captivate her.

About Volintsev, as about Natalya, Turgenev narrates in a tone of cordial interest, but the method of describing Volintsev is still significantly different: Turgenev introduces a certain degrading shade of condescending participation into his portrayal. As soon as Volintsev appears next to Natalia, the reader immediately learns from the stingy, but much-talking remarks of the novelist, that this handsome man with gentle eyes and a beautiful dark blond mustache, perhaps, is good in himself, and kind, and honest, and is capable of devoted love, but is clearly marked by the seal of some kind of internal inferiority: he understands his limitations and, although he bears it with full dignity, he cannot suppress self-doubt; he is jealous of Natalya in advance for the noble guest who is expected at Lasunskaya, and this jealousy is not from the consciousness of his own rights, but from a sense of his lack of rights. Outwardly, Volyntsev resembles his pretty and kind sister, Lipina, who looked and laughed like a child, but Turgenev notices, not by chance, that there was less play and life in his features and his eyes looked somehow sad. If we add to this that Natalya is even with him, affectionate and looks at him friendly, but no more than that, then the nature of the love story that should play out in the further development of the novel is already determined by this. With the advent of the real hero that the reader is waiting for, the unstable balance in the relationship between Natalya and Volintsev will inevitably have to be broken.

Now the movement of the plot is prepared, the environment is outlined, the background is outlined, the forces are placed, the light and shadows falling on the characters are distributed deliberately and accurately, everything is prepared for the appearance of the protagonist, whose name is given to the novel - and at the end of the chapter, the footman can announce at last, exactly in the theater: "Dmitry Nikolaevich Rudin!"

The author furnishes the appearance of Rudin in the novel with such details that should immediately show the combination of heterogeneous properties in this person. During the very first phrases, we learn that Rudin is tall, but somewhat stooped, he has quick dark blue eyes, but they shine with a “liquid sheen”, he has a wide chest, but the thin sound of Rudin’s voice does not correspond to his height and his wide chest. The very moment of the appearance of this tall, interesting man, curly-haired and swarthy, with an irregular, but expressive and intelligent face, the appearance, so carefully prepared, evokes a feeling of showiness and brightness. And again, such a trifle produces a feeling of some kind of external discrepancy: the dress on him was not new and narrow, as if he had grown out of it.

The impression made on the reader by these small details is subsequently, if not smoothed out, then, in any case, outweighed by the real apotheosis of Rudin's mental power. In a dispute with Pigasov, he wins a quick and brilliant victory, and this victory is not only for Rudin personally, but for those advanced forces of Russian thought, of which Rudin acts as a kind of advocate in this scene.

Rudin, a graduate of the philosophical circles of the 1930s, first of all defends the very necessity and legitimacy of philosophical generalizations. He contrasts the worship of facts with the meaning of "general principles", that is, the theoretical foundation of all our knowledge, all our education. Rudin's dispute with Pigasov acquires special significance: Russian thinkers created their philosophical systems in the struggle with "practical people" (Pigasov calls himself a practical person), in disputes with skeptics (Rudin calls Pigasov a skeptic). Interest in philosophy seemed to both of them an unnecessary and even dangerous pretension. Here Rudin acts as a faithful student of Stankevich and Belinsky, who defended the profound importance of the philosophical foundations of science, and not only science, but also practice, Rudin and his friends needed the General Principles to solve the fundamental issues of Russian life, Russian national development. Theoretical Constructions, as we remember, they associated with historical practice and led to the substantiation of activity. “If a person does not have a strong beginning in which he believes, there is no ground on which he stands firmly, how can he give himself an account of the needs, in the meaning, in the future of his people?” Rudin asked. The further development of his thought was interrupted by Pigasov's vicious trick, but the few words that Rudin managed to say clearly show where his thought was heading: "... how can he know what he should do if ..." Speech, therefore , is about activities based on an understanding of the needs, meanings and future of their people. That's what the Rudins cared about, that's why they defended the need for common philosophical "beginnings."

For Rudin and others like him, the development of personality, individuality with its "vanity" and "egoism", in the words of Rudin himself, was a preparatory step and a precondition for an active pursuit of social values ​​and goals. Personality in the process of its development comes to self-denial for the sake of the common good - people of the 30s and 40s firmly believed in this. Belinsky and Stankevich wrote about this more than once. Rudin speaks about the same in the novel, arguing that “a person without pride is insignificant, that pride is an Archimedes lever that can move the earth from its place, but at the same time, he only deserves the name of a person who knows how to master his pride, like a horseman a horse who sacrifices his personality for the common good. Many parallels can be cited to Rudin's aphorisms from the articles and letters of people from the Stankevich-Belinsky circle. In the minds of cultural readers of Turgenev's time, such parallels arose by themselves, and the image of Rudin was associated with the best figures of Russian culture of the recent past. All this raised Rudin to a pedestal, completely inaccessible to the skeptical witticisms of some Pigasov.

For all that, Turgenev does not forget about Rudin's human weaknesses - about his narcissism, about some even acting, drawing, love for a beautiful phrase. All this will become clear later. In order to prepare the reader in advance for the perception of this facet of Rudin's personality, Turgenev, true to his principle of significant details, introduces such a small episode: immediately after deep and exciting words about pride and the common good, about selfishness and overcoming it, Rudin approaches Natalya. She gets up in confusion: apparently, Rudin in her eyes even now is an extraordinary person. Volintsev, who was sitting beside her, also gets up. Before that, Basistov fervently rejected Pigasov's next witticism, hostile to Rudin. Quite obviously: Rudin was a clear success with his audience; it is even more than a success, it is almost a shock. Did Rudin notice all this, is it important to him, or, perhaps, carried away by the high meaning of his words, did he completely forget about himself, about his pride? Much will depend on this or that behavior of Rudin at this moment in assessing his nature. A barely noticeable touch in Turgenev's narrative helps the reader to draw the desired conclusion.

“I see a pianoforte,” Rudin began softly and affectionately, like a traveling prince, “are you not playing it?”

Everything is significant here: both the soft tenderness of Rudin's intonations, who knows his strength and now, admiring himself, is as if afraid to suppress his interlocutor with his greatness, and the direct author's assessment of Rudin's posture, gesture and well-being - as a "traveling prince". This is an important, almost a turning point in the story: for the first time, the sting of the author's irony touched the protagonist. But this, of course, is not the last and not the decisive impression.

What follows is Rudin's story about his trip abroad, his general discourses on education and science, his brilliant improvisation, his poetic legend ending with a philosophical aphorism about the eternal significance of man's temporary life. The author characterizes with great words almost the highest secret that Rudin possessed - the secret of eloquence, and admiration is seen in the author's tone. Then the impression made by Rudin on each of his listeners is conveyed - in the tone of a rather dry report, which, however, speaks for itself: Pigasov leaves in anger before anyone else, Lipina is surprised at the extraordinary mind of Rudin, Volyntsev agrees with her, and his face becomes even more more sad. Basistov writes a letter to a friend all night long, Natalya lies in bed and, without closing her eyes, gazes intently into the darkness ... But at the same time, the “traveling prince” is not forgotten, the impression of some kind of rupture of Rudin’s external portrait also remains, like the impression the unusualness of the author's tone, absorbing a variety of shades - from admiration to ridicule. Thus, the duality of the hero is affirmed and the possibility, even the inevitability of a dual attitude towards him. This was done by the author during one - the third - chapter, the further course of events is predicted in it, and the subsequent presentation is already perceived as a natural development of everything laid down here.

In fact, these two themes continue in the subsequent narrative: both the theme of Rudin's personal shortcomings, and the theme of the historical significance of the very fact of his appearance in Russian life. In the following chapters, we learn a lot, almost everything, about Rudin's shortcomings - from the words of his former friend Lezhnev, whom the reader must believe: Lezhnev is truthful and honest, besides, he is a man of Rudin's circle. And yet the reader cannot fail to notice that although Lezhnev seems to be right, he has personal reasons to speak ill of Rudin: he feels sorry for Volintsev, and he is afraid of Rudin's dangerous influence on Alexandra Pavlovna.

But the task of evaluating Rudin is not yet over. The main test lies ahead. This is a love test. And for Rudin, a romantic and a dreamer, love is not just an earthly feeling, even sublime, it is a special state of mind that imposes important obligations, it is a precious gift that is given to the elect. Let us recall that at one time, having learned about Lezhnev's youthful love, Rudin was delighted indescribably, congratulated, hugged his friend and began to explain to him the importance of his new position. Now, having learned about Natalya's love and confessing his love himself, Rudin finds himself, however, in a position close to comic. He talks about his happiness, as if trying to convince himself. Conscious of the importance of his new position, he commits grave selfish faux pas, which in his own eyes take on the appearance of sublime directness and nobility. He comes, for example, to Volyntsev to tell him about his love for Natalya ... And all this very quickly, within just two days, ends in a disaster at Avdyukhin Pond, when Natalya tells that her mother has penetrated their secret, resolutely disagrees with their marriage and intends to refuse Rudin from the house, and Rudin, when asked what they should do, utters the fatal “submit!”.

Now Rudin's "exposure" seems to be finally complete, but in the last chapter and in the epilogue with a short addition to it about Rudin's death, everything falls into place. Years have passed, old grievances have been forgotten, the time has come for a calm and fair trial. In addition, not having passed one test - the test of happiness, Rudin passed another - the test of misfortune. He remained a beggar, he is persecuted by the authorities; in the epilogue of the novel, the former accuser Rudin Lezhnev passionately defends his friend from his self-accusations. “Not a worm lives in you, not a spirit of idle restlessness: the fire of love for truth burns in you ...” In the epilogue, everything funny, everything petty is removed from Rudin, and his image finally appears in its historical significance. Lezhnev bows before Rudin as a “homeless sower”, “enthusiast”, Rudin, in his opinion, is needed ...

The solution of the main question - the role of the hero in the life of Russian society - is subject in Turgenev's novel to the method of depicting the inner life of the characters. Turgenev reveals only such features of the inner world of the characters that are necessary and sufficient for their understanding as social types and characters. Therefore, the novelist is not interested in the sharply individual features of the inner life of his characters and does not resort to detailed psychological analysis.

In Sovremennik, after Rudin, Chernyshevsky's review of Childhood and Adolescence and L. Tolstoy's war stories appeared. As you know, Chernyshevsky in it gave a deep definition of Tolstoy's psychologism as "dialectics of the soul": Tolstoy "is not limited to depicting the result of the mental process, he is interested in the process itself ..." Turgenev's psychological method is completely different, he has a different task. His sphere is exactly what Chernyshevsky is talking about when he lists writers who are not like Tolstoy - namely, "the outlines of characters", understood as the result of "social relations and everyday collisions." Turgenev does not talk about the "most mysterious movements" of the human soul; for the most part, he shows only expressive signs of inner life.

Let's take as an example the most psychologically saturated episode of "Rudin" - a date at Avdyukhin Pond, which shocked Natalia and turned her life upside down. Turgenev draws this psychological catastrophe with the simplest means - the image of facial expressions, gesture, tone. When Rudin approaches Natalya, he sees with amazement a new expression on her face: her eyebrows were drawn together, her lips were compressed, her eyes looked straight and stern. Turgenev is quite enough of this to convey the state of mind of Natalia. He is not interested in unsteady transitions and overflows of feelings, he does not need the author's comments on the inner world of the heroine at the moment. He is occupied only with those main manifestations of her feelings and thoughts that correspond to the solid outlines of her character.

The same and further, throughout this scene. The story of what happened on the eve of this meeting (Pandalevsky's ear, a conversation with her mother), Natalya utters in some even, almost soundless voice - a sign of higher tension: she is waiting for Rudin's decisive word, which should determine her fate. Rudin says "submit", and Natalya's despair reaches its highest point. Outwardly, this is expressed only by the fact that she slowly repeated this terrible word for her, and her lips turned pale. After Rudin's words that they were not destined to live together, Natalya suddenly covered her face with her hands and began to cry, that is, she did the very thing that every girl in her place would have done. But this is the only tribute to female weakness in the whole scene. Then a turning point begins, almost one after another, true signs of a strong, decisive character follow, and Natalya leaves Rudin. He tries to keep her. A moment of hesitation...

“No,” she finally said ... “The word “finally” here denotes a large psychological pause, which Leo Tolstoy would have filled with insight bordering on clairvoyance, but Turgenev will not do this: the very fact of a psychological pause, denoting internal struggle, it is important for him to complete this struggle - it ended in full accordance with the character of Natalya.

In Turgenev's novel, even the image of nature helps to understand the character of a person, to penetrate into the very essence of his nature. Natalya, on the eve of her love affair with Rudin, goes into the garden. She feels a strange excitement, and Turgenev introduces a landscape accompaniment to her feeling, as if translating this feeling into the language of the landscape. It is a hot, bright, radiant day: without covering the sun, smoky clouds are rushing, which at times drop abundant streams of sudden and instantaneous downpour. A joyful and at the same time disturbing landscape appears sparkling with diamonds of raindrops, but anxiety is eventually replaced by freshness and silence. This is, as it were, a “landscape” of Natalya’s soul, not translated into the language of concepts, but in its transparent clarity and not in need of such a translation.

In the scene at the Avdyukhin Pond, we see a landscape of an opposite character, but of the same meaning and purpose. An abandoned pond, which has already ceased to be a pond, is located near an oak forest, long extinct and dried up. It is eerie to look at the rare gray skeletons of huge trees. The sky is covered with solid clouds of milky color, the wind drives them, whistling and screeching. The dam, along which Rudin walks back and forth, is overgrown with tenacious burdock and blackened nettles. This is Rudin's landscape, and he also takes part in assessing the character and nature of the hero, as the autumn wind - in the epilogue - in assessing his fate.

What is the ultimate assessment of Rudin's type? Turgenev thought of naming his novel "Natural Genius", and in this title, according to Turgenev's plan, both parts of it were equally important. In the middle of the last century, when the novel was written, the word "brilliant" did not mean quite what it is today. Under the "genius" meant then in general mental talent, breadth of vision, high demands of the spirit, disinterested striving for truth. Rudin had all this, and even Lezhnev, who clearly saw the shortcomings of his former friend, recognized these qualities of his. But "nature", that is, firmness of will, the ability to overcome obstacles, understanding the situation - Rudin did not have this. He knew how to inflame people, but he could not lead them: he was an educator, but he was not a reformer. There was "genius" in him, but there was no "nature."

In 1860, Turgenev included the novel in his collected works and completed its final episode. A "homeless wanderer" who found no business in Russia ended his life on a Parisian barricade during the June uprising of 1848. The man who was afraid of the ban of Darya Mikhailovna Lasunskaya was not afraid of the cannons that smashed the barricades and the rifles of the Vincennes shooters.

This does not mean that he became a revolutionary fighter, but he was capable of a heroic impulse. Even before the epilogue was completed, it became clear to the reader that Rudin had not lived his life in vain, that Russia needed him, that his preaching awakened the need for a new life. No wonder Nekrasov, immediately after the appearance of the novel in the magazine, said important words about Rudin as a person "powerful for all weaknesses, fascinating for all his shortcomings." In the novel, Rudin was recognized as his teacher by the raznochinets Basists, an honest and direct person, belonging to that circle and to that generation that was destined to replace the Rudins in the further development of Russian social thought and the liberation movement.

This change was accompanied by an ideological struggle between "fathers and sons". In the changed conditions of the late 50s - early 60s, at the time of the public upsurge, "new people", harsh democrats, raznochintsy, deniers and fighters, came forward to replace the "superfluous". When they established themselves in life and literature, the image of Rudin faded and moved into the shadows. But years passed, and Rudin was again remembered by the young revolutionaries of the 70s. In the voice of the Turgenev hero, one of them heard “the ringing of a bell that called us to wake up from a deep sleep”, the other, in a letter intercepted by the police, recalled the disputes that were going on about Rudin in the revolutionary circle, and ended with the exclamation: “Give us now Rudina, and we would have done a lot! .. "

Years passed again, much changed again in Russian life, and in 1909 M. Gorky said his weighty word about Rudin, placing the dreamy and impractical Turgenev hero immeasurably higher than the sober and positive liberal-gentry practitioners of his time. “A dreamer - he is a propagandist of revolutionary ideas, he was a critic of reality, he, so to speak, plowed virgin soil - and what, at that time, could a practitioner do? No, Rudin's face is not pitiful, as it is customary to treat him, he is an unfortunate person, but he is timely and has done a lot of good.

Each generation reads Rudin in its own way. This is always the case with great works in which life is depicted in many ways and shown in its historical significance. Such works awaken the thought and become for us not a monument of antiquity, but our undying past.

A simple man - in the front portrait. The artists made it possible, centuries later, to see the representatives of the masculine gender of Russia as they were in their essence.

Ivan Kramskoy. Portrait of a peasant. 1868

Despite the fact that Kramskoy was a portrait painter of the intelligent stratum of Russian society and painted the most popular and respected figures of that time up to the emperor, he included this peasant in his gallery of “best people”. The artist, seeing in him the originality and strength of personality, executed his portrait with the solemnity characteristic of the ceremonial portraits of "great people". His "Peasant" is a kind of research practice: the desire to understand what primary elements make up the national character, national psychology.

Nikolay Yaroshenko. Peasant. 1879

Yaroshenko - a military man by education and service, passionately loved art, especially its pompous and tragic side. Joining in 1878 as a member of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, he exhibited with genre paintings. In peasant faces, he could always find what he was looking for for inspiration - pure emotion, realism, rigor, depth and the history of a simple person. In the paintings, his heroes find themselves in the most difficult life situations - from prison to funerals - and it becomes clear that only a strong and humble peasant can survive what Yaroshenko wants to show.

Viktor Vasnetsov. "Portrait of a peasant I. Petrov." 1883

The peasant Ivan Petrov of the Vladimir province depicted here served as a prototype for Ilya Muromets, the hero of the legendary painting Bogatyr. Vasnetsov made this study in 1883, and finished the heroes themselves in 1898.

Ilya Repin. Peasant's head. 1882

Repin lived a lot in the countryside and well represented both village life and village customs. Therefore, in the sketch in which he worked on the head of the village headman, the artist depicted an open man with a tough temper, irreconcilable and tough. He has a stern, piercing look from under frowning eyebrows, a raised head, narrow pursed lips, hiding under a lush mustache. This is still a young man - this is evidenced by his chestnut lush hair without gray hair, his chin is shaved. The rough-skinned face is stern, pointed and wrinkled, like those of those who work in the fields.

Philip Malyavin. Portrait of a bearded man in a sheepskin coat

Even depicting peasants, Malyavin moves away from concrete images to more and more collective ones: the subject certainty in his paintings is replaced by a free, almost self-sufficient play of colorful spots. He achieves a bewitching saturation of color, designed to embody the elemental power of folk types, to convey a diverse scale of feelings - from unrestrained fun to gloomy concentration.

Zinaida Serebryakova. Portrait of a peasant I.D. Golubev. 1914

Composition

Children are the future of the whole nation. That is why the images of peasant children, vividly and warmly described in I. S. Turgenev’s story “Bezhin Meadow”, are imbued with such sympathy, love and tenderness.

Businesslike and serious, with all their childish spontaneity, the guys make us not only smile, but also real respect. Skillful, dexterous, economic, they are engaged in responsible business - they graze horses. Night, bonfires, conversations while waiting for "potatoes" - this is not fun at all. Without hesitation, Pavlusha rushed after the worried dogs, thinking that the herd was attacked by wolves. A twelve-year-old unarmed boy was not afraid of a possible fight with a hungry forest predator! He was not afraid when he went alone into the darkness to the river, because "I wanted to drink some water." And this is after the terrible stories about evil spirits!

In the unhurried conversations of the boys, in the “tales” they told about goblin, water and mermaids, all the wealth of the spiritual world of a simple Russian person is revealed to us. And how much poetry in their unusual comparisons: “Look, look, guys,” Vanya’s childish voice suddenly rang out, “look at the stars of God, that the bees are swarming!” The portraits of the children are drawn by the writer with warmth and tenderness: it is simply impossible to forget the “fresh face” and “big quiet eyes” of the seven-year-old Vanya, the face of Pavel burning with “bold boldness and firm determination”.

Other writings on this work

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"Hunter's Notes"

I.S. Turgenev.

Brief historical and literary reference.

Research work: "Singers"

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"The life of a clan, family, clan is deep, knotty, mysterious, often terrible." I.A. Bunin "Sukhodol".

“I could not breathe the same air, stay close to what I hated ... In my eyes, this enemy had a certain image, bore a well-known name: this enemy was serfdom. Under this name, I collected and concentrated everything against which I decided to fight to the end - with which I swore never to try on ... This was my Annibal oath. I.S. Turgenev.

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“All of them (Turgenev’s stories) tell about serfs and are not only a detailed psychological study, but even go so far as to idealize serfs who, in their moral qualities, were higher than their heartless masters ... A string of ideal and touching serfs, passing through these stories, depicted all the absurdity of slavery, causing indignation of many influential persons of that time. V.V. Nabokov.

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Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich. (28.X.1818 - 22.VIII.1883) Prose writer, poet, playwright, critic, publicist, memoirist, translator. Born in the family of Sergei Nikolaevich and Varvara Petrovna Turgenev. Turgenev's childhood passed in the parental estate of Spassky-Lutovinovo, near the city of Mtsensk, Oryol province; his first teacher was his mother's serf secretary Fyodor Lobanov. By the age of 14, Turgenev was fluent in three foreign languages ​​and managed to get acquainted with the best works of European and Russian literature.

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Varvara Petrovna Lutovinova (1787 -1850)

“Orphans are not children for long. I myself was an orphan and very much felt before others my benefit ... I did not have a mother; my mother was like a stepmother to me. She was married, other children, other connections. I was alone in the world."

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Slide 8

Turgenev fell in love with hunting before he became a writer, and gained literary fame thanks to hunting.

Portrait of Turgenev - a hunter.

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Since 1847, Turgenev's stories began to appear in Nekrasov's Sovremennik magazine, which the author later combined into a separate book and called it "Notes of a Hunter".

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"Swan". "Tatyana Borisovna and her nephew" "Death". "Singers". "Pyotr Petrovich Karataev". "Date". "Hamlet of Shchigrovsky district". "Chertop-hanov and Nedopyuskin". "The End of Chekrtophanov". "Living Forces". "Knocks"! "Forest and steppe".

"Khor and Kalinich" "Yermolai and the Miller's Woman". "Raspberry Water" "County doctor". "My neighbor Radilov." Odnodvorets Ovsyannikov. "Lgov". "Bezhin Meadow". "Kasian with Beautiful Swords". "Burmister". "Office". "Biryuk" "Two landowners".

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The main theme and idea of ​​"Notes of a hunter"

Topic. Image of the simple Russian people, serfs. Assessment of their high spiritual and moral qualities; showing the moral impoverishment of the Russian nobility Idea. Protest against serfdom.

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History of creation

"Singers" were written in August-September 1850. Initially, the story was called "The Plytyny Tavern". The title "Singers" probably belongs to N. A. Nekrasov.

In 1850, I.S. Turgenev reported on the addition to the “Notes of a Hunter” of a new story, in which he “in a slightly embellished form” depicted the competition of two folk singers, which he himself witnessed “two months ago” In the memoirs of the former serf Turgenev, village teacher A. I. Zamyatin, it is evidenced that “Yashka the Turkish, the son of a captive Turkish woman” is a real person

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Contemporaries about the story

Turgenev in "Notes of a Hunter" showed the peasants on a par with the landowners. It turned out that the peasants, like people, are often better than the landowners, that they are smart, quick-witted, and sometimes endowed with a poetic soul.

Let us turn to the story "Khor and Kalinich". One of the heroes, a polecat, is an economic one, everything is soundly with him, and his house and family are big.

He is on his own mind, it is impossible to deceive him. Ferret could have bought himself a free one a long time ago, but he does not want to do this, he is already fine.

Kalinich is a different nature. He looks different. The ferret is stocky and dense. Kalingch is tall and thin. He knows the forest perfectly, without him the landowner does not go hunting. Kalinich knows how to treat with folk remedies, and brings various herbs from the forest.

Khor and Kalinich are attracted as two opposites. There is such a detail in the text: Kalinich brings a bunch of wild strawberries from the forest to his friend.

Turgenev treats his heroes with attention and even love. Before him, no one portrayed the peasants like that.

The story "Bezhin Meadow" shows peasant children. Turgenev describes five boys who spent the night by the fire, grazed horses. Of all the children, he immediately singles out Paul. This is a clear leader among children, although among the children there are also children from non-poor families.

Pavel is prudent, bold (he rode alone into the darkness when danger arose, not thinking that there might be wolves there). Children tell each other bylichki, from which the spirit of folk poetry breathes.

Peasants in the notes of the hunter Turgenev

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