Iraq second world war. Arab countries after World War II

A coup took place in the country, during which a pro-Nazi and pan-Arabist government came to power. As a result of the British invasion of Iraq, it was overthrown, and on June 1, the regent Abd al-Ilah came to power, who resigned only on May 2, 1953.

By the time the Second World War began, the Prime Minister of Iraq was Nuri al-Said, who signed the Anglo-Iraqi treaty of 1930, according to which the British mandate was canceled and the independence of the state was recognized while maintaining foreign policy and military dependence. Considering it a sufficient support to maintain the security of Iraq, he wanted to declare war on the Third Reich, but his ministers advised him to postpone because the situation was not in favor of Great Britain on the fronts. The Prime Minister declared Iraq a neutral state and severed diplomatic relations with the Third Reich. After the Kingdom of Italy entered the war in 1940, however, it was rather difficult for Nuri al-Said, then Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Gailani, appointed on March 31 of the same year, to convince the government of the need to sever diplomatic relations with the Kingdom. Italy. Under the influence of the spread of the ideas of pan-Arabism after the end of the French campaign of the Wehrmacht, anti-British sentiments in society increased due to the dependence of most of the Middle Eastern states on foreign influence. In particular, the ideologues of pan-Arabism suggested that Iraq take part in the liberation of Syria and Palestine and achieve political unity within the Arab world. The leaders of the extremist movements advocated the establishment of relations with the Third Reich as the guarantor of the independence and unity of the Middle Eastern states.

From the outset, Rashid Ali al-Gailani was reluctant to contact extremists and sever diplomatic relations with Britain. In the course of disagreements in the government, the Prime Minister decided to establish relations with the leaders of the pan-Arab organizations. The most influential officers of the Iraqi army were also influenced by their ideas and supported Rashid Ali al-Gailani in his efforts to forge ties with the ideologues of pan-Arabism and sever diplomatic relations with Great Britain. In 1940-1941, Iraqi army officers did not want to cooperate with Great Britain, and the leaders of the pan-Arab movement began secret negotiations with the Axis countries. Great Britain decided to send troops to Iraq. Rashid Ali al-Gailani, who allowed a small British contingent to land in Iraq, had to resign at the beginning of 1941, but in April of the same year, with the help of the army, he again came to power and refused to accept reinforcements of British troops.

The British launched an invasion of Iraq from the Persian Gulf and from an air base near the city of Habbaniyah in April-May 1941. The hostilities lasted for 30 days, during which the leaders of the state, including the regent Sharaf Fawaz and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, fled Iraq. By the end of May 1941, Iraq had surrendered. Rashid Ali al-Gailani fled to Germany with his pan-Arab supporters.

The return to Iraq of the regent under his son Faisal II Abd al-Ilah and the leaders of moderate political organizations after the British occupation of the country had far-reaching consequences. Great Britain received transport and communications equipment at its disposal, and also got the puppet government to declare war on the Axis countries in January 1942. Supporters of Rashid Ali al-Gailani were stripped of their posts and interned during the war. The British hanged four officers from the Golden Square organization that staged a coup in Iraq on April 1, 1941.

During World War II, the leaders of moderate and liberal political movements began to play a significant role in Iraqi life. The entry into the war of the United States and the USSR and their support for democratic movements in the world led to an increase in the influence of democrats in Iraq. People who survived the absence and infringement of personal freedom and freedom of the press believed that in the course of the war, life would change for the better. However, the government did not pay enough attention to democracy, and the rules and restrictions on the period of the war after its end were not abolished. Regent Abd al-Ilah, at a government meeting in 1945, believed that the cause of popular discontent was the lack of a truly parliamentary form of government. He called for the formation of political parties and promised them complete freedom of action and the beginning of socio-economic reforms.

The general democratization of public life in the postwar period caused a new upsurge in the national liberation movement in Iraq in the late 1940s. More active participation in political life began to be accepted by peasants, youth, progressive intelligentsia and the national bourgeoisie, whose positions were consolidated during the war years. The role of the working class, trade unions and the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP) has increased. During the war, a number of patriotic parties emerged, including the People's Party and the National Unity Party. Both enjoyed significant influence among the intelligentsia, students, small traders and artisans. The Party of the People was headed by Aziz Sherif, the Party of National Unity - by Abdel Fattah Ibrahim. In April 1946, the National Democratic Party of Iraq (NDPI) was formed organizationally, expressing the interests of broad layers of the intelligentsia and the petty bourgeoisie of the city. The Liberal Party and the Independence Party began to operate. The first of them united the liberal landlords and the big bourgeois. Despite the small number, she enjoyed influence in parliamentary circles and in the countryside. The Independence Party expressed the interests of the nationalist big bourgeoisie and feudal lords. In 1946, the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) began to operate, defending the national interests of the Kurdish people.

On February 23, 1946, liberal leader Tawfiq al-Suweidi formed the first peacetime cabinet. The new government abolished the martial law in the country and the censorship of the press. In April, it legalized many political parties.

In many ways, 1947 turned out to be significant. In conditions of political repression, parliamentary elections were held in March. In parliament there were proteges of the monarchical authorities. The struggle around the new unequal Anglo-Iraqi treaty, signed in January 1948 in Portsmouth, reached great tension. This treaty summed up the results of the British military occupation and maintained the dependent position of Iraq. In principle, the treaty repeated the 1930 treaty. As before, the British retained control over the Iraqi armed forces, and used the air bases and other military facilities in Iraq. The Iraqi government did not receive independence in foreign policy. The new treaty with England sparked a surge in mass protests. The royal authorities were never able to ratify it. On February 2, the new government headed by Muhammad al-Sadr was forced not only to reject the treaty, but also to declare its intention to revise the Anglo-Iraqi treaty of 1930. Political protests in Baghdad involved the province and developed into a national anti-British and anti-monarchist uprising. The rebels organized the Committee of National Cooperation, which united the MET, the ICP, the KDP, the National Liberation Party and the People's Party, as well as a number of public organizations.

A wave of popular uprisings forced the ruling circles to agree with the demands of the insurgents. The termination of the Portsmouth Treaty was announced and the intention to revise the 1930 treaty. It seemed that the January uprising ended in victory, but they failed to consolidate what they had achieved. From March 1948, mass persecutions of the participants in the uprising began. The imposition of martial law in the country in connection with the Arab-Israeli war in May 1948 allowed the grouping of the monarchist general Nuri Sayd to increase pressure on the opposition. The main repressions fell on the IKP. Its leaders Yu.S. Yousef, H.M. Al-Shabibi and ZM Basim were convicted by the Supreme Tribunal and executed in February 1949. Mass repressions allowed the ruling regime to temporarily reduce the intensity of anti-British protests in the country.

The beginning of the 1950s, throughout the Arab world, was marked by a new upsurge of the national liberation struggle, which stirred up the patriotic community in Iraq. Peace organizations and mass democratic organizations emerged. Branches of such pan-Arab nationalist left-wing radical organizations as the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (T1ACV or BAAS), the Arab Nationalist Movement (DAN), and others were also created.

At the same time, reaction has consolidated its forces. In November 1949 Nuri Said created his own party, the Constitutional Union, and in June 1951, the National Socialist Party of Saleh Jabra was formed. However, in the fall of 1952, the government agreed to hold direct elections to parliament. The elections took place in 1953, during which they exerted gross pressure on the voters, which made it possible to bring the supporters of the monarchical system into parliament.

Under pressure from the anti-government protests of the Iraqi people in 1954, the authorities were forced to dissolve parliament and call new parliamentary elections. The June elections were won by the United National Front, representing the MET, the Independence Party and organizations of peace supporters, women and youth, as well as communists (as an independent organization, the IKP did not participate in the Front). The parliamentary elections were held under the slogan of eliminating the British military-political and economic dominance in Iraq, carrying out democratic reforms and an independent foreign policy. The monarchical elite of Nuri Said decided to go for a coup d'etat. In August 1954, she announced the dissolution of the newly elected parliament and banned the activities of all political parties. A regime of open military dictatorship was established in the country.

Monarchical Iraq moved towards closer rapprochement with the reactionary regimes of neighboring Muslim countries. In 1955, with the active participation of Britain in Baghdad, a military-political bloc was formed with the participation of Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan. In accordance with the Anglo-Iraqi agreement of 1955, which replaced the 1930 agreement, Britain retained military-political control over Iraq and involved it in its aggressive actions in the Near and Middle East, which caused discontent among the Iraqi people.

The speeches for Iraq's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact united all the national-patriotic forces of the country. Demonstrations and protest strikes in November 1956 escalated into an armed uprising. Although the uprising was suppressed by mid-December 1956, it convinced Iraqi patriots of the need to unite in joint political action and anti-government actions.

Since 1954, the national branch of the Arab Party of Arab Socialist Renaissance (PASV Baath) has emerged among the political forces in Iraq. The Baathists put forward simple and understandable slogans, they promised the people to carry out social reforms. Their party became popular among the population. The authority of the party increased due to its active participation in the movement against the Anglo-French-Israeli military invasion of Egypt in 1956. The PASV found the greatest support among the petty bourgeoisie and supporters of the idea of ​​Arab nationalism.

In early February 1957, the bourgeois National Democratic Party and the Independence Party, the petty-bourgeois PASV and the Communist Party decided to unite in the Front of National Unity (FNU). The KDP, due to the mistrustful attitude of the bourgeois members of the Front, did not enter it, but kept in touch with it through the IKP. The FNU program provided for the removal of Nuri Said from power, the country's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact and the implementation of the democratization of the political system, the liberation of Iraq from foreign interference, and a policy of positive neutrality. The FNU program received support from patriotic organizations and the illegal army organization "Free Officers"

The patriotic Iraqi military, led by General A.K. Kasem and Colonel A.S. Aref opposed ruling regime... The military action was coordinated with the leadership of the FNU. The speech took place on the night of July 13-14, 1958, on the eve of the departure of King Faisal II and Prime Minister Nuri Said from Baghdad to Istanbul to sign an agreement on Iraq's accession to Turkey's intervention against Lebanon. Two army brigades occupied the royal palace and government offices. The civilian population joined the military. The capital and then the whole country were under the control of the rebels. King Faisal and his family, Prime Minister Nuri Said and some of the leaders of the old regime were arrested and killed. The rebels proclaimed Iraq an independent republic.

The republican government includes representatives of senior officers and FNU officials. It was announced about Iraq's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact, about the elimination of foreign military bases on Iraqi territory. The head of state was A.K. Kassem. On July 26, an interim constitution was introduced, consolidating the republican conquests and proclaiming the equality of all citizens before the law. The president became the head of state, and he was also the chairman of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command, the country's highest legislative body. Executive power was exercised by the Council of Ministers, whose members were appointed by the president.

The July revolutionary events of 1958 can be characterized as an anti-colonial national revolution, the success of which ensured the participation of broad masses of the people in the unity of the forces of the opposition to the monarchy.

The main content of the political process after the July 1958 revolution was the rivalry between the two most influential parties - the PASV and the IKP. Both parties pursued a common goal of the country's development - the construction of national socialism and fought for influence on the broad popular; masses. The communists established ties with the KDP and began to organize joint anti-government demonstrations, Iraqi Kurdistan became their base. The struggle between the Baathists and the communists led to a split in the FNU in the spring of 1959. In January 1960, the government introduced a law on the legalization of political parties. The IKP was denied legalization.

In the ranks of the bourgeois National Democratic Party, a split was outlined, as a result of which the National Progressive Party of Iraq separated from the party, which began to lean towards an alliance with the PASV. " in the country. In fact, such a statement meant the party's self-dissolution.

The uncertainty of the political situation was reflected in the economic activity of the government. On September 30, 1958, the agrarian reform law was promulgated. This law was half-hearted and did not completely abolish feudal land tenure, but nevertheless significantly limited it. It was envisaged to seize half of the land belonging to the feudal lords in order to distribute the confiscated surplus among the landless peasants. Provided for the payment of monetary compensation to the owners of the latifundia for the land seized from them.

Active participation in the implementation of the agrarian reform in the 1958-1960s. accepted peasant unions. With their help, the lands confiscated from the feudal lords were distributed among the peasants in the province of Amara, and the reform was successfully carried out in the provinces of Kut and Nasiriya. The government also put forward a program for the industrial development of Iraq, for the implementation of which it intended to attract all national resources and patriotic forces of the country.

The development of trade and economic relations with the USSR, which followed the restoration of diplomatic relations on July 18, 1958, was of great importance for the formation of the economy of the young Iraqi Republic. On October 11, 1958, a Soviet-Iraqi trade agreement was signed in Baghdad, according to which the Soviet Union, in exchange for traditional Iraqi exports, pledged to supply Iraqi machines "and complete equipment for enterprises and construction projects, as well as consumer goods. other treaties, both economic and humanitarian, which also included soft loans (1964) and defense orders.

This kind of activity by the new government provoked fierce resistance from the feudal and bourgeois-comprador reaction. In conditions of political tension, the head of state, Qasem, began to strengthen his personal dictatorship, which caused discontent even on the part of political allies: in particular, PASV, DAN and the so-called Iraqi nserist supporters of the Nasser way of development in Egypt refused to support Qasem. Together they formed the Socialist Bloc in opposition to the government. The prevailing situation was used by forces seeking to curtail the revolutionary process. On February 8-10, political opponents of Kassem, relying on the army units loyal to them, staged a coup d'état.

As a result of the coup on February 8, new authorities were created - the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NSRC) and the government; key positions in them were occupied by members of the PASV (Baathists). Abdel Sassalam Aref became the President and the Prime Minister - Ahmed Hasan al-Bakir.

Immediately after the establishment of the new regime, repressions against the ICP began, which entailed heavy casualties. But at the same time, the contradictions in the camp of the recent allies in the Socialist Bloc were aggravated. In particular, the PASV - on the one hand, the Iraqi nasserists and DAN - on the other hand, disagreed on the approach to the negotiations on the unification of Iraq with Egypt, which took place in March - May 1963. On May 25, the NRSK announced the disclosure of the conspiracy of the nasserists. Their representatives were removed from the government, and local organizations became illegal, and from June 1963 they took part in the anti-Baassist political coalition.

The conflict between the Baathists and the Nasserists marked the beginning of the collapse of the Socialist Bloc. DAN, a number of other unionist organizations, as well as the military group of A.S. Aref left after the nasserists. By mid-summer, all political parties and groups abandoned their alliance with the PASV.

The complexity of the situation in which the PASV found itself during this period was caused by the fact that the party sought to win over to its side all classes and strata of society, without exception, on the basis of its own concept of "the harmony of Arab society." Therefore, the government wanted to combine the introduction of workers' control in large enterprises, the participation of workers in profits with the satisfaction of the demands of the national bourgeoisie, and the intention to nationalize large foreign capital with the permission for foreign companies to resume their activities in Iraq.

The government's contradictory measures in the economic field caused distrust of both the national bourgeoisie and foreign companies in it, and led to an increase in economic chaos in the country. The national bourgeoisie began to close factories and transfer capital abroad, which caused an increase in unemployment and worker discontent. Foreign companies have curtailed their trade with Iraq. At the same time, a number of government measures led to a reduction in economic ties with the USSR and other socialist countries.

In the agrarian region, the government passed laws in April and June 1963 to reduce land redemption payments and the amount of rent. At the same time, when the peasantry, after the promulgation of the laws, began to spontaneously seize the landowners' lands, the government, under pressure from the landowners, resorted to repression. Thus, the confidence in the policy of the authorities was undermined both among the feudal lords and among the peasantry. In addition, in June 1963, in northern Iraq, another military action began between the regular army and Kurdish units. The fighting became fierce.

Attempts by the PASV to find a way out of this situation led to an exacerbation of contradictions in the party leadership. In September, two groups were formed in it, the differences between which escalated into military clashes. The created situation was used by the group of A.S. Aref. With the support of the Unionists and a significant part of the military, she staged a coup d'état on November 18, 1963. All power was concentrated in the hands of the army. A.S. Aref, and after his death in a plane crash (1966) power passed to his brother, General Abdel Rahman Aref. Military extremist groups tried to establish a brutal repressive regime in the country. Many prominent participants in the 1958 revolution and opposition figures were arrested and physically destroyed, and hostilities continued against the Kurds.

Taking advantage of the deepening division of patriotic forces in the country, the ruling military elite resorted to demagogic maneuvers, they developed a government program for building so-called "Arab socialism" in Iraq, carrying out agrarian reform, introducing a planned economy and promoting the private sector. In foreign policy, loyalty to the ideas of Arab unity was proclaimed. The program was promulgated on November 26, 1963. The government then adopted an interim constitution, which proclaimed equal rights for all Iraqi nationalities and provided for the election of a National Assembly by all citizens of the country. At the same time, the constitution prohibited the activities of political parties; instead, the Arab Socialist Union was created - a government organization that united various political groups and forces that supported the government's domestic and foreign policy.

Lacking public support, the ruling elite of A.R. Arefa relied on the highest ranks in the army and state apparatus. She tried to balance between the landlords and the bourgeoisie, on the one hand, and the working people, on the other. But political instability only deepened the state crisis in the country.

Opposition parties and groups took advantage of the current situation and the isolation of Iraq in the Arab world, due to its non-participation in repelling the 1967 Israeli aggression in the Middle East. Government declarations of readiness to hold democratic elections and form a coalition government failed to save the regime. On July 17, 1968, the Baathists and army officer groups staged a coup d'état and took power into their own hands. President Aref was arrested and expelled from the country, presidential power passed to the leader of the Baathist party, General Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr.

Immediately after the seizure of power, the PASV carried out a serious restructuring in its ranks, freed itself from right-wing extremist elements and created a new party leadership consisting of five people, among whom even then an army officer and party activist Saddam Hussein began to play an active role.

On July 16, 1970, a new provisional constitution was adopted, which declared Iraq a "people's democratic republic." The highest organ of state power was the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). The executive power was vested in the Council of Ministers. A.Kh. al-Bakr. In November 1971, a draft Charter for National Action was promulgated, where the priority was put forward the task of cooperation of all political parties and groups in Iraq. A major event was the government's decision in 1972 to nationalize the property of the Iraq Petroleum Company. The nationalization of all oil resources in the country was completed by the end of 1975. The country's oil wealth passed into the hands of the state, thereby dealing a serious blow to the positions of foreign capital in Iraq. In April 1972, the Iraqi government agreed to sign the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR.

In the same years, certain changes were outlined in the country's economy: the share of the public sector began to grow steadily. At the same time, public sector enterprises were provided with benefits, including when obtaining licenses, loans, and the allocation of funds from the state budget.

Attention to the development of the country's industrial base as a whole has increased. Investment in industry, both in absolute and relative terms, has grown significantly. So, if according to the five-year development plan for 1965-1969. 187.2 million dinars were spent on the development of industry, or about 31% of all capital investments, but in the five-year plan for 1970-1974. - already more than 500 million dinars, or 35%. At the same time, an annual increase in industrial production by 12% was ensured.

In May 1970, a new agrarian reform law was passed. Compared to the law of 1958, it significantly lowered the maximum land tenure, which was differentiated depending on the type of soil, type of agricultural product, method of irrigation, etc. The maximum of land left to large landowners was reduced by more than 2 times. The law exempted the peasants from paying the ransom and eliminated compensation for the feudal lords. The distribution of plots for unlimited and free use among landless and land-poor peasants has significantly accelerated. In just two years after the adoption of the new law, more than 3.8 million dunams have been distributed - significantly more than in the entire previous decade. In total, by July 1972, 6.8 million dunams of landowners' lands were distributed among 125.7 peasant families. Another 240 thousand families became guaranteed tenants of state land. In general, about half of all peasant families received land on the basis of property rights or a guaranteed peasant lease. Thus, the economic and political influence of the feudal lords in the countryside was significantly limited.

The transformations in the economy were accompanied by important social measures. Chief among them - the adoption of the Labor Law in 1970 and the Law on Social and Pension Security in 1971. Both laws! helped to raise living standards and improve working conditions.

The PASV leadership called on all political parties and public organizations to cooperate in order to achieve stability in the country and ensure democratic transformations. The government promised to settle the Kurdish problem peacefully, restore the civil rights of national minorities and legalize the activities of political parties. The most serious political opponent of the Baathists was the Communist Party. But by this time, the IKP split into two parts: the Central Command, headed by Aziz al-Khodj, and the pro-Soviet Central Committee, headed by Aziz Mohammed. In 1968, the Baathists invited both factions of the ICP to enter the government cabinet. The Central Command rejected this offer. The Central Committee (CC) leaned towards a compromise alliance and recognized the leading role of the PASV in the government, the NPF and the army. The recognition of the political leadership of the PASV meant a voluntary renunciation of the communists' claims to a leading role in the political life of the country.

The Baathists achieved a noticeable shift in the Kurdish issue - a central internal political problem that threatened the stabilization of the state. This was partly due to the fact that a split occurred in the political movement of Iraqi Kurdistan back in the 1960s. In 1964, a petty-bourgeois nationalist group headed by Talabani broke away from the KDP. This group took shape as an independent Kurdistan Revolutionary Party, inclined "to cooperate with the government of Iraq. Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani continued to wage war with the Iraqi authorities. However, the Kurdish military units were defeated, Iraqi Kurdistan came under the control of government forces. Mustafa Barzani left Iraqi government forces." One of his sons, Masoud Barzani, led the Kurdistan Democratic Party, which continued its armed struggle against the Baathist regime. On March 11, 1974, an Iraqi Kurdistan autonomy law was promulgated in Baghdad. 1975 The KDP, which adopted a program of cooperation with the Baathists, was legalized, its representatives were appointed by the governors of the four northern provinces. Five Kurds entered the government cabinet. The Legislative and Executive Councils were formed in the Kurdish Autonomous Region. The elections showed that Iraqi Kurdistan, having gained autonomy, was pacified. The irreconcilable opposition was forced to emigrate and continued to fight against the regime outside the country.

The accession to the Baathist regime of the PKK and the IKP significantly changed the balance of political forces in the country. The PASV leadership managed to split the ranks of the main opposition parties and assert their political authority. From that time on, the Baathist Party became a secular movement, in whose ranks almost all strata of Iraqi society found representation. The political struggle was transferred to the PASV itself.

July 7, 1979 A.Kh. al-Bakr was removed from all posts in the state and the army. He was taken under house arrest for Saddam Hussein, and according to the official version, he resigned due to illness. Presidential power was transferred to S. Hussein, who simultaneously became the president of the republic, prime minister, head of the Revolutionary Command Council, commander-in-chief of the armed forces and general secretary of the party. Thus, S. Hussein concentrated absolute power in the country in his hands.

One of the primary tasks of the ruling party and its leader was to establish their complete ideological, political and administrative control over the state. Persons loyal to the Baathist party and personally to S. Hussein were appointed to responsible positions in the party, army and state apparatus. Particular attention was paid to the baathization of funds mass media, huge funds were allocated to improve the methods and forms of propaganda and social demagogy. The spheres of culture and education, oriented towards educating people in the spirit of Baathism, acquired an ideological character. In the mass professional and public organizations, Baathist ideas were also implanted, and tight control over them was established.

The Communist Party turned out to be the only serious opposition force that remained on the path of establishing the absolute power of one party - PASV. Taking advantage of the demand of the communists to lift the state of emergency in the country and hold elections to the National Assembly, the SRK banned the activities of the IKP in mass organizations. In May 1979, more than 30 communists and their supporters were accused by Saddam Hussein of betraying the Iraqi revolution and creating their own cells in the army and were executed. The new Iraqi leadership severed ties with the USSR. In April 1979, the communist ministers withdrew from the government, the Communist Party ceased its participation in the National Front, and its leaders left the country. With the defeat of the IKP in Iraq, a one-party system was established with the Baathist party's monopoly on power and the total ideologization of the country's society.

Under the influence of internal changes and a number of external factors, Iraq's foreign policy changed. After the Camp David Treaty between Israel and Egypt, which led to the curtailment of Egypt's cooperation with the Arab states, the Iraqi leadership tried to present itself as a successor to Nasser's course in the Arab world. In opposition to Israel, Iraq entered into an alliance with Syria. Deep ideological divisions made Iraq's alliance with Syria short-lived. Saddam Hussein's policy was influenced by the "Islamic revolution" in Iran, which threatened to destabilize the political regimes of neighboring states, primarily Iraq. Under the influence of revolutionary changes in Iran, the Baathist Iraq moved towards rapprochement with Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Libya and the monarchies of the Persian Gulf. The rulers of the Arab countries pinned their hopes on Iraq in protecting the Arab world from the onset of the "Islamic revolution" of Iran.

Taking into account the political changes in the Middle East, the asserted regime of Saddam Hussein vigorously promoted the idea of ​​a special mission for Iraq and began to claim the role of a pan-Arab leader, to demonstrate its readiness to restore the honor and dignity of the Arabs, trampled upon by the Israeli aggression and the great-power policy of the United States. The tightening of foreign policy was used to militarize the economy and the entire political life of Iraq. The course towards the militarization of the regime was combined with propaganda calls for the creation of a "united front against the aggression * of Israel and the United States, against the expansionist aspirations of the Islamic regime of S. Khomeini in Iran.

The formation of the totalitarian regime of Saddam Hussein took place during the years of the long Iranian-Iraqi war and the 1991 war, which was difficult for Iraq, in the Persian Gulf.

The "Islamic revolution" in neighboring Iran, which overthrew the Shah's rule in February 1979, caused serious concern among the rulers of Iraq. Deep religious, ideological, national and political contradictions, as well as mutual territorial claims, divided the two countries. Iran's Islamic government has called on Shiite Muslims to jihad against the "pernicious and atheistic Iraqi elite." The calls of the leader of the "Islamic revolution" inspired the opposition Shiite community in Iraq to protest against the government. In the Iranian city of Qom, a meeting of the leaders of the Iraqi party Ad-Daawah (Party of conscription) took place, where it was decided to raise the Iraqi people to revolt and overthrow the Baathist government through subversion, sabotage and terror. The implementation of these directives was undertaken by the "soldiers of the imam" (militants of the Ad-Daawa party). In response to acts of terror, the Iraqi government resorted to expelling Shiites from the country and tightened its policy towards national minorities. The Iraqi authorities accused S. Khomeini of intending to expand not only in Iraq, but also in other countries of the Persian Gulf region.

The reason for the start of Iraqi hostilities against Shiite Iran was the refusal of the "Islamic revolution" regime from the 1975 treaty signed in Baghdad by the Iranian Shah Pahlavi and Hussein. The treaty obliged Iran to transfer some border territories to Iraq, on September 17, 1980, the Iraqi government announced the restoration of its sovereignty over the Shatt-el-Arab and denied Iran the right to navigate the river. The territorial problem served as a pretext for the outbreak of war. But the main problem should be considered the irreconcilable hostility of political systems and ideologies to each other, as well as the desire of the leaders of both countries for hegemonism in the Persian Gulf regions. The war was the result of a clash of two powers, which claimed to be the leader of the Islamic (Iran) and Arab (Iraq) worlds.

On September 22, 1980, Iraqi forces began fighting and invaded Iran. S. Hussein hoped that the armed forces of Iran were weakened as a result of the revolution. However, in order to win the war, it was necessary to provide a reliable rear. For this purpose, S. Hussein defeated the opposition (pro-Syrian) wing in the Baathist party and government, united the military command. With the establishment of martial law, the regime managed to achieve national accord. The Iraqi leader hoped for the support of the Sunni Arabs in the Iranian province of Khuzistan. But when Iraqi troops invaded the province, ethnic Arabs and Sunnis of Khuzistan, who made up the majority of the province's population, stubbornly resisted the aggressor and defended Iranian statehood.

In September 1981, the Iraqi forces suffered their first defeat, and in the summer of 1982 the Iranians drove the Iraqi forces out of their territory. The Iraqi authorities realized that the further continuation of hostilities could lead to destabilization of the internal political situation and to the emergence of a threat to the integrity of Iraq. National relations have become aggravated in the country. After the start of the Iran-Iraq war, in 1980, two anti-government forces were formed in the Kurdish regions - the Democratic National Patriotic Front, which entered with its organization the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan with the leader of Talabani, who became disillusioned with cooperation with the Baghdad authorities. and the National Democratic Front, in which the Kurdistan Democratic Party, led by Massoud Barzani, became the most significant force. However, by the mid-1980s. The Democratic National Patriotic Front ceased its activities, and the National Democratic Front was limited to an alliance between the DPK communists. Four Iraqi armies were sent against the KDP and PUK, with their help it was possible to defeat the forces of the Kurdish rebels and establish military-political control over Iraqi Kurdistan.

The Iran-Iraq war became protracted, during which both belligerents lost more than a million people killed and several million wounded and missing. Material damage amounted to hundreds of billions of dollars. The war was used by S. Hussein in the interests of establishing his dictatorial regime. But, faced with an internal political crisis, in August 1990, President Saddam Hussein announced his agreement with the Iranian conditions for the settlement of the military conflict, which consisted in the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Iranian territories and the exchange of prisoners.

During the Iran-Iraq war, there were changes in the balance of world forces. With the weakening and then the collapse of the Soviet Union, the inability of the new Russia to restore the status of a superpower, the bipolar world changed to a unipolar one. The Arab countries soon felt the change. The confrontation between the North and the South became more distinct. The possibilities of the Arab countries for international maneuvering in their hands of the United States of America have noticeably narrowed. Saddam Hussein intended to turn his country into a major power in the South, opposing the United States, and the first step on this path was the unleashing of a military conflict between Iraq and Kuwait.

In the summer of 1990, relations between the two neighboring countries escalated sharply. The reasons for this were the economic difficulties faced by the Iraqi authorities after the war with Iran. The Baghdad regime came out of the war with a huge foreign debt of $ 80 billion, and the revenues to the Iraqi treasury from the sale of oil sharply decreased. S. Hussein hoped to capture a small and rich emirate with lightning speed. The possession of Kuwaiti oil was supposed to give Baghdad powerful levers for regulating world oil prices and bring Iraq to the rank of the leading oil powers, assert its leading position in the Gulf, and also raise its authority in the Arab world.

On August 2, 1990, Iraq moved its troops into Kuwait and annexed it as its "19th province". The Iraqi government covered up the decision to annex with slogans about the liberation of the Arabs from imperialism and declared that Kuwaiti democracy was "artificially created by foreigners" and therefore should be replaced by "people's democracy" - advocating the unity of the Arab nation. Using populist slogans, the Iraqi authorities presented themselves as spokesmen for discontent and protectors of the interests of the Arabs, regardless of where they live. And the Arab public at first perceived Saddam Hussein as a hero who challenged the West, and Iraq as a powerful power that immediately fought with 30 countries, including the STA and Great Britain. S. Hussein demonstrated his desire to create a large state through a large-scale war and using modern weapons, including nuclear. Iraqi missile attacks against Israel, an ally of the United States, raised sympathy for Saddam Hussein. In the eyes of the nationalist forces of the Arab countries, Hussein's Iraq was seen as the vanguard of the struggle against imperialism and Zionism in the Arab East. The Palestine Liberation Organization, the Arabs of Yemen, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Sudan, Jordan, Mauritania were ready to join the war on the side of Iraq. Not only Arabs, but also other peoples of Asia and Africa showed solidarity with the regime of Saddam Hussein. All this indicated that the military conflict threatened to develop into an all-out war of the South against the North.

On the initiative of the United States on August 6, 1990, the UN Security Council imposed tough trade and economic sanctions against Iraq. Iraq found itself in an international blockade. US military bases and troops of European NATO powers were switched from protection Western Europe from the Soviet Union to deliver a crushing blow to Iraq. NATO bombers are stationed at Turkish military bases. At the request of Saudi Arabia, the United States sent its half a million ground and air forces to the Arabian desert to repel the Iraqi invasion. The warships of the United States and some other NATO member states arrived in the Persian Gulf. Egypt, Syria and Morocco sent their military contingents to support Kuwait.

The UN Security Council issued an ultimatum to Iraq - until January 15, 1991, to withdraw the aggressor's troops from Kuwait, otherwise war was declared on it. The Iraqi leadership rejected the peace proposals. But the outbreak of the war, Iraq ingloriously lost. The US military operation, codenamed Desert Storm, lasted six weeks. American aircraft quickly disabled Iraqi military power. The Americans refused to transfer hostilities to Iraqi territory, they were convinced of the imminent fall of the weakened regime of Saddam Hussein. At the same time, Western politicians feared a possible collapse of the Iraqi state and sought to prevent a change in the balance of political forces in the Persian Gulf zone. On February 28, 1991, Iraq agreed to the ultimatum demands of the UN Security Council on Kuwait and went to unconditional surrender.

After the surrender, the UN (under the dictation of the United States) imposed a brutal sanctions regime against the Baghdad regime. The import from Iraq of all types of raw materials, including oil, and finished goods, supplies to Iraq of all types of raw materials and finished goods, the sale or transfer of weapons and military equipment, other forms of assistance in the military sphere, etc. are still prohibited. The import of food and medicine is very strictly limited, from which, naturally, the people first of all suffer, blaming, by the way, not S. Hussein for their troubles, but the United States. Iraq is also under an obligation to compensate for the damage caused to Kuwait and other States affected by its invasion. Fulfilling these commitments will require tens of billions of dollars.

In preparing the invasion of Kuwait, the Iraqi leadership certainly did not anticipate what price their country would have to pay. The total economic damage that Iraq suffered as a result of hostilities alone is estimated at $ 50 billion. More than 80% of the country's oil production and refining capacities were destroyed, oil terminals, oil pipelines and other important facilities were seriously damaged. Some industrial enterprises were destroyed, others stopped due to lack of raw materials and spare parts. Roads, bridges, ports, airfields, etc. were damaged. During military operations, Iraq lost more than 50% of its food.

In subsequent years, the United States, exercising strict control over the military industry in Iraq, accused Saddam Hussein of numerous violations of UN directives. In particular, in 1995, 500 photographs were submitted showing that Iraq has reconstructed most of its military installations; uses military equipment exported from Kuwait; that, bypassing the embargo, exported 100 thousand barrels of oil through Iranian territory and the same amount through Turkey and Jordan.

In 1995 and 1998, the American and British Air Forces, in violation of UN Security Council resolutions, bombed Iraq, which led to large casualties among the civilian population and caused an extremely negative reaction in the world.

The defeat caused internal complications. The Kurds rebelled again, demanding the creation of their own state. Opponents of the Baath Party called for the democratization of the state and the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime.

The Kurdish patriotic movement refused to cooperate with the Baghdad government and advocated the creation of a legal democratic state. Anti-Baassist political forces also began to call for the democratization of the state system and demanded the introduction of a multi-party political system in the country. Foreign opposition called for the restoration of Hashemite royal power in Iraq. S. Hussein managed to maintain control over the socio-political situation in the country mainly due to the toughening of repressive measures against the political rivals of the dictatorial regime.

Middle East conflict. Palestinian problem. On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly decided to create two states - Jewish and Arab - on the territory of Palestine freed from British rule, and Jerusalem (Guds) came under UN control.
In 1948, the state of Israel was formed, and the first Arab-Israeli war immediately began. The Arabs lost it. Israel has seized part of the territory allotted by the UN to the Palestinian state.
In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was created, headed by Yasser Arafat. A guerrilla war broke out against Israel.
In June 1967, the Israeli army attacked Egypt, Jordan and Syria, captured the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the western bank of the Jordan River, the Arab part of Jerusalem, the Golan Heights belonging to Syria.
In the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Israel was defeated for the first time. With the mediation of the United States, a separate Egyptian-Israeli treaty was signed in 1975. This is how the unity of the Arab countries was split. In 1978, the Camp David Treaty between Egypt and Israel was again concluded with the mediation of the United States. As a result of this agreement:

1. The war between Israel and Egypt ended.
2. All Arab states turned their backs on Egypt, broke off relations with it and pulled Egypt out of the Arab League.

In 1980, Israel declared Jerusalem its “one and indivisible capital”.
In November 1988, in Algeria, the Palestinian National Council announced the creation of an independent state of Palestine.
In 1994, in Cairo, with the participation of the foreign ministers of the United States, Russia and Egypt, an agreement was signed between Israel and the PLO to establish the Palestinian Authority. In July 1994, an agreement was concluded between the Israeli Prime Minister and the King of Jordan in Washington to end the 46-year-old state of war between them.
In 1996, peace was concluded in Oslo between the PLO and Israel, according to which 30% of the occupied Palestinian lands were to be returned, but in 1997 the construction of Jewish settlements began in the Arab part of Jerusalem, which again inflamed tensions in relations. The Israeli armed forces have repeatedly invaded and shed blood in the Palestinian Authority.
Hamas won the 2006 elections in the Palestinian Authority.

Egypt after World War II

For the garment industry in England, Egypt played the role of a “cotton plantation”. After World War II, Egypt was officially considered an independent country, but in fact remained completely dependent on England.

In July 1952, an uprising began in Cairo led by the Free Officers organization led by Jamal Abdul Nasser.

The rebels overthrew the English protege of King Farouk. In 1953, Egypt was proclaimed a republic. J. A. Nasser became the country's first president. In 1956, the nationalization of the Suez Canal began. This was the reason for the outbreak of October 30, the war of England, France and Israel against Egypt. But the aggressors had to retreat.

In 1958, Egypt and Syria united into a single state - the United Arab Republic. In 1961, Syria withdrew from this union, but only after the adoption of the constitution in 1971, from 1972, Egypt again began to be called the Arab Republic of Egypt.

Anwar Sadat, who became president in 1970, proclaimed an "open door" and "liberalization" policy. His policies, contrary to the interests of the Arab countries, provoked protests within the country. In 1981, during a military parade, he was killed and the country's vice president, Husni Mubarek, became president of Egypt.

Saudi Arabia after World War II

Even during World War II, the United States began to show interest in the Middle East region, and after the war, it began to expand relations with Saudi Arabia.

An air force base was built in Dehran, and in 1950, a trans-Arab oil pipeline.

In 1966, Saudi Arabia came out on top in the Middle East in terms of oil production.

Since the 1960s, Saudi Arabia's foreign policy has been ambivalent. On the one hand, Saudi Arabia opposed democratic and national liberation movements. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia criticized the Israeli aggression and provided material assistance to the Arab countries - victims of this aggression.

Algeria after World War II

In November 1954, the people of Algeria began a liberation struggle against the French colonialists under the leadership of the National Liberation Front. In March 1962, on the basis of the Evian Agreements, France recognized the independence of Algeria. In September 1962, the Algerian People's Democratic Republic was proclaimed.

Iraq after World War II

After World War II, power in the country remained in the hands of the Anglophile monarchy, which was overthrown by patriotic forces in July 1958, and Iraq became a republic.

The Kurdish separatist movement destroyed the unity of the patriotic forces. Taking advantage of this, the Arab Social Democratic Party (BAAS) came to power in 1968. In 1979, a group of military men led by Saddam Hussein seized power.

Since September 1980, Iraq has been at war with Iran for 8 years. In August 1988, with the mediation of the UN, these countries were reconciled.

In 1990, Iraqi troops occupied Kuwait, and this drew international condemnation. Iraq rejected the demand of the UN Security Council to liberate the territory of Kuwait. In response, a number of countries led by the United States and Britain prepared and conducted Operation Desert Storm, Iraq was defeated and liberated Kuwait on February 28, 1991. This event went down in history as the “War in the Gulf”.

In 2003, the United States and its allies entered Iraq and overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime.

Syria

After the war in Syria, there is a party struggle. The state is divided into 2 zones: the southern zone - in the sphere of influence of France, Egypt and Palestine, the main national party, the head of Shukri alquati. The northern part of Syria is connected with England, Iraq and Transjordan, the People's Party, headed by Hashim Al-Atasi.

1947 - the all-Arab party appears, the party of the Arab socialist revival - the baath, is not a party of one country. It is nationalist, popular, socialist, revolutionary. She advocated powerful social programs, nationalization of foreign companies, reforms in the agrarian sector and industry, nationalization of banks. The main ideologist is Lebanese Michel La Flac. The Muslim brothers and the Ullem Union, extremely fundamentalist organizations, were active in Syria.

1947 - Syria enters the Arab-Israeli war, brigade of 2000 people. 1949 - defeat, change of government. The new cabinet was formed by an independent leader. The officers are very unhappy, demand revenge, allocation of funds for the preparation of a new war, declare the leadership responsible for the failure of the war.In 1949, officers led by Khaled al-Azam commit a military coup. Husni Al-Zaim is in power as a colonel. Then there were coups almost every year. From 1951 -1954 - Adib Shishekli. Dictatorship, tough regime, control of all parties. In 1954 he was overthrown. Runs abroad. The leader of the People's Party, Hashim Al-Atasi, comes to power. He shares a government cabinet with the national party.

In 1958 - Michel Laflak, the leader of the Baath, made Syria unite with Egypt to create a united Arab republic. It hit Syria hard. Dissolution of all parties. They began to carry out reforms, which was within the framework of the Baath ideology. Agrarian reform, large enterprises and insurance companies were nationalized. The influence of Egypt in the government apparatus. 1961 September - a coup, there are many of them. January 8, 1963 - The Baath Party comes to power. Moscow did not support the Baathists.

Terror repression begins. On March 8, another coup, the military came to power, the left wing of the armed forces. A national council of the revolution is being set up. In power is Salah Addin-Betar, a Baathist. The Baathists actively supported the leftist government. The idea of ​​building an Arab socialist society is being dragged in. Again, the alliance of Syria with Egypt, Iraq. 1964 - An interim constitution is introduced. Egypt is declared a people's democratic, socialist sovereign republic. Left-wing Baathists demand drastic reforms. There is a secret struggle between them and the military.

Spring 1966 23 February - coup. The decision of the Council of the Revolutionary Command is canceled. A new board is introduced. The president is elected - the leader of the baath, Al-Attasi. The Baathists are still in power.

Syria enters the Six Day War of 1967 - it deals the worst blow to Syria. 1967 Syria loses Dutch heights - a key zone of occupation for Israel.

The regime of power is staggering. The division in the Baathist government into civilian and military. The military wing blames defeat. Head Hates Aser - demands to take measures to normalize the situation. In 1970, a conspiracy was organized against Nuraddin Al-Attasi, Aser gave the order for his arrest, and Salah Ajaddin, the general secretary of the Baath party, was arrested.

Hates Aser - has the greatest influence. Baath interim regional leadership is being formed. Program: the formation of a national front, the inclusion of all progressive forces there, the formation of a people's council, the strengthening of public property, the strengthening of the armed forces. She does not formally take power in her hands, but this is temporary. In 1971, Hates was elected president, ruled for 28 years. In fact, the dictatorship of Hates Asser. Adopts the tactics of the communists. A nationally progressive front was created, where all the leading parties were united - the main party, the Baath.

A reform is being carried out in the countryside, large companies are being nationalized, and an indicative plan is being developed. The socialist tendencies of development are sharply increasing.

1973 - Yom Kippur War. Syria is taking an active part in trying to recapture the Dutch heights. The problem of the Palestinians who have been kicked out of Jordan is emerging.

Since 1971, Palestinians have pushed their way into Syria.

After the 1973 war, a demarcation zone was introduced there in the area of ​​the Dutch Heights. In addition, the Israeli army occupied El Quneitra.

Foreign policy, unlike domestic policy, is constantly changing: since 1975, Syria has been involved in the civil war in Lebanon. Syria views Lebanon as part of its historical territory.

1975 - Syria introduces troops into Lebanon, takes an anti-Israeli position. When Egypt begins to flirt with Israel, Syria is alarmed, condemns, in 1977 - Syria - one of the initiators of the creation of a national front of resilience and resistance - Hates Asser and Muammar Gaddafi - the organizers. This includes Algeria, Iraq and Yemen. They support the patriotic forces of Lebanon against the Maronites, and the national army, these are Druze Shiites and Palestinians

1977 -78 - repressions against Muslim brothers. In 1981, the organization was finally defeated. In 1980, the Iranian-Iraqi war begins. Syria is on the side of Iran. In 1988 the war ends. In 1990, Iraq invades Kuwait. Syria is fully on the side of the anti-Iraqi coalition. The United States allows the Syrians in 1991 to send troops to Lebanon (because they found allies for Iraq). They already participated there, and since 1990 they have played a decisive role there. The war with 75-91 - as a result, the Syrians finished everything in 2 months. Established the Syrian regime. 1991-2005 - the Syrians are the masters of Lebanon. Stability in Lebanon came to an end in 2005, when the prime minister, who was against the Syrian occupation, against the strengthening of Hezbollah, was assassinated.

A social movement begins. In 1999, Bashir Aset came to replace Hates Aset. He was no, he was a dentist, but here you have to correct. The troops have actually been withdrawn from Lebanon. A blow to the credibility of the new government. Now there were speeches forgiving the Syrians, but this was quickly suppressed.

Lebanon

suffered the greatest losses from the Palestinian conflict. 1946 - Anglo-French troops are withdrawn. Lebanon becomes an independent state. In 1943 - 4 main confessions - Maronites, Shiites, Sunnis and Druze - signed a national pact: only a Maronite can be the President of Lebanon, a Sunni prime minister, a Shiite speaker, the Druze received nothing. (Druze are extreme Shiites, for whom the leader of the community - this is a god. All imams are gods. Break away from the Fatimids who were in Egypt. Ismailis are extreme Shiites.)

The Maronites wanted to isolate themselves from the Arab world. They associated themselves more with Europe. Sunnis and Shiites wanted nothing to do with the rotten west. The Druze were the most radical. As a result, the national pact of 1943 fixed that as a result of the consent of the communities - consocial democracy, i.e. conciliatory democracy - quotas are allocated for minorities, which guarantee a certain participation, whatever the alignment, they will get a seat in parliament, even if the principles of democracy and are violated. As a result of the agreement: the Maronites agreed to be part of the Arab world. They are Christians will not try to establish European domination in Lebanon.

War of 1948 - Lebanon participates in it. Signs an armistice agreement in 1949. Headed by a tough government, Bechal Alhuri. Sunni Prime Minister, Real Solh. Everyone got theirs, except the Druze. In 1949, they created their own party - the progressive socialist Druze party. It aims to redefine relations, to ensure that the Druze get a place in the government. They put forward claims to change the constitutional order.

Christians - they have reactionary factions. Their main idea is to fight the Druze, to prevent them from remaking the existing order. Their leader is Camille Chamoun.

After consolidation, the struggle begins, while bloodless. 52 Camille Chamoun comes to power. Conducts constitutional reform, took a majority in parliament, a cadre revolution against the Druze.

1967 - the government welcomes the Eisenhower Doctrine with a bang - they received money in exchange for the support of the West in the fight against the USSR. But money is spreading among the Maronites. The sharp rise in the right is causing discontent.

The Progressive Socialist Party: part of the Shiites and part of the Sunnis - are united in a national front. This front is supported by a part of the Maronites. Their demands: to give up the support of the West, to cooperate with the progressive regime in Egypt and Syria. As a result, in 1958 - an armed uprising. After that - the war: the right-wing Maronites are at war with the left and the Druze. Camille Shamoun appeals to the United States, they land troops in Beirut in 1958 Under the NATO flag. This is a scandal. The national front is growing to the utmost, pressure on Shamoun, he is forced to resign. The attempt to Westernize Lebanon failed.

Shihab comes to power. His successor, Shang Halu in 1964, continues the moderate line.

The Six Day War, Lebanon did not directly touch, but after 3 years a nightmare began there. In 70 g, after the Palestinians were expelled from Jordan, everyone rushed to Lebanon. Since 1971 - destabilization, because the Palestinians have declared their claims to their own place.

1968 - in order to restrain the flow of refugees to Lebanon, a triple bloc of Helf was created: the Falangists (the nationalist Lebanese Christian party) and two Maronite organizations entered. The main focus was against the Druze, Shiites and the party of infiltrating Palestinians. In fact, they wanted to join the West in order to find help against the Palestinians.

1971 - Palestinians began to set up camps on the border with Israel. 1972 - Israeli troops enter the Lebanese border for the first time, the mass of victims, the press denounces the Israeli invaders. Helf goes on the offensive, surrounds the refugee camps in Beirut and is massacred. West Beirut is under the control of Christians, east - Muslims.

1973 Yom Kippur War. After her, the tension began to increase greatly. In 1975, in fact, a war between right-wing Christians and left-wing forces was going on in all major cities. Since 1976 - the intervention of Syria, brings troops into the territory of Lebanon. Divide Lebanon into zones - they have stabilized the situation in their zones of responsibility. But the introduction of sire troops did not resolve the conflict. In 1977, the leader of the Druze, Kamil Jumblatt, was killed. After his murder, his brother became the leader, this only embittered the Druze. In 1978, Israel not only introduces troops into the territory of Lebanon, but creates in the south of Lebanon an army of southern Lebanon of right-wing Christians who control this territory.

Ceasefire negotiations are underway all the time. In 1982, the Palestine Liberation Organization actually seizes power in Beirut. Yasser Arafat feels at home there, does not reckon with either the legitimate ruler or the right-wing Maronites. In 1982, Israel launched an offensive against Beirut. This is the 5th Israeli-Arab war. There is nothing the Syrian containment force can do.

The Israeli army approached Beirut, surrounded the Palestinian military camps - they were under threat of destruction, but then, as usual, the Americans intervened and saved everyone. The Palestinians were loaded onto trucks and taken out. They settled in Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt - all the coast.

This is a terrible humiliation. They couldn't just leave it. A new president was elected from the right-wing Christian forces - Bashikh Zhemael. The unmanned Palestinians killed him. At the suggestion of Israel, right-wing Christians surround Palestinian refugee camps and massacre several thousand elderly women and children.

After that, sometime until 1995, separate hostilities continued. The Israelis occupy a third of Lebanese territory, and the Syrians also come there. The Palestinians left, we would be glad, because the refugee problem has been resolved. But no, suddenly a new force appears - the Shiites. After the revolution in Iran, the flow of money from the United States fell upon them.

Islamic amal (movement) appears. Serious guys are taking the lead in confronting the Israelis. The Hezbollah party became active in 1985. Very serious guys. Sunnis don't sleep either. Sunnis take over Tripoli in northern Lebanon. Government forces suppress fundamentalists in Tripoli. The hostilities abate. The Syrians withdraw their troops after 1982. In 1990, Iraq invades Kuwait - the first Gulf War. To enlist Syria's support in the war against Iraq, the Americans are allowing the Syrians to enter Lebanon. Those who enter in a few days establish their own order.

Since 1991, Lebanon has been occupied by Syrian troops. By 2000, the strip of the army of the south of Lebanon was eliminated. The national pact continues to operate: led by the Maronites and Shiites and Sunnis. But the Syrians were able to put things in order. This continued until 2005, when Rafik Khaleri, the Sunni prime minister, began to pursue an anti-Syrian policy and was assassinated. 2006 - war with Hezbollah, but their positions are hardly touched.

Iraq

Iraq has ethnic problems. In the north, there are Kurds, central Sunnis, and Yug Shiites.

National Democratic Party of Iraq, 1946 defended the interests of the Kurds. It was actively supported by the USSR. The party acted illegally. There was the People's Party and the National Unity Party, the Communist Party.

In the Kurdish movement, there was a division into factions: the Democratic Party of Kurdistan and the Socialist Party of Kurdistan. There was a struggle between them.

After the war, negotiations began between the government and England to sign a treaty. 1948 - the treaty ends the British occupation. But it persists: English control over the armed forces. The Iraqi government is disadvantaged in solving political problems. After this treaty, mass demonstrations began. Mohammed Assad stands for drastic change.

1948 - the first year of the Arab-Israeli war, Iraq takes part. On the one hand, the Arab countries have suffered political damage. But this made it possible for the military to strengthen control over the country.

In 1953, new elections were held with gross violations, parliament was dissolved. In 54, Nuri Said arranged a coup. He is a pro-English leader, establishes a dictatorship regime, dissolves parliament and banning parties. 1955 - Baghdad pact, England retains military and political control over Iraq. All this leads to discontent, manifestations. 1956 - armed uprising. Nuri Said crushes him.

The Iraqi branch of the Baath Party is preparing an armed uprising, establishing ties with the army. The National Unity Front is working out a plan to remove Nuri Said. In 1958 - the July revolution, the end of the monarchy and the declaration of an independent republic. The new government includes officers and a national unity front with the Baath Party. Iraq withdraws from the Baghdad pact. The head of state is Abeggeri Kasen. He is also the chairman of the People's Council of the Revolutionary Command. A constitution is being introduced. In the new government, the communists and the Baathists compete.

The communists have established close contacts with the Kurds to make things worse. The Baathists took advantage of this. Kurds and communists are strong and must be recognized. The front of national unity is splitting. The liberalization of the regime is gradually taking place. The parties are allowed, the political leapfrog begins. Kasen displeases his rivals, 1963 - the overthrow of Abdegil Kasen. In power - Abdel Sulamare. He ruled until 1966. Power passes to his brother after his death.

In this situation, the constitution of 1963 is introduced, the essence: it prohibits the activities of all political parties, an organization is created for the supporters of the Aref brothers - a single bloc. The crisis is intensifying in the country, aggravated by the defeat in the Arab-Israeli war.

1968 - Aref is overthrown, the Baathists, led by Albacr, are in power. The reign of the Baathists begins. The Baathists are pursuing an exclude leftist policy. Nationalization of all resources, by 1975 there were no foreign enterprises. Friendship with the USSR, supply of Soviet weapons. Attempts to settle relations with the Kurds. Mustafa Barzani is fighting the Iraqi authorities. 1974 - Baathists promulgate the Kurdistan Autonomy Law. There is formed its own legislature. Beginning to support the Baathists. The Baathist movement declares its secular character and disowns Muslims. This displeases Muslims.

1979 - Albacr, leader of the military opposition, removed from all posts. Saddam Hussein actually makes a coup, proclaims himself to everyone: president, prime minister, baath general secretary, commander-in-chief. He carries out a purge, eliminates a supporter of Albacre. The communists oppose him, Hussein will execute them. Relations with the USSR do not deteriorate, however, it continues to receive weapons. The USSR wants to maintain relations, but the latter does not want to. In 79 g - the break of ties with the USSR. New purges and repression of the communists. Saddam Hussein is trying to find allies. 1979 - an alliance with Syria, but nothing happens. 80 g - war broke out with Syria, she is on the side of Iran.

Saddam Hussein is in direct contact with Iran. Looking for allies. The regime is militarized. In September 80 g - Hussein Gardens claims the rights to a piece of territory under the control of Iran - shatel arabi - a piece of the river overlooking the Persian Gulf (the confluence of the tiger with the Euphrates). Hussein prohibits Iran from navigating in that area and claims border territories for himself. This leads to the Arab-Israeli war.

September 22, 1980 Iraqi troops invade Iran - an 8-year war begins. Both countries had their own claims to this territory. Hussein believed that he should be supported by the swamp Arabs, he arranged a tough regime. He closed the energy network of Iraq on the swamp Arabs, gasses the Kurds. Iraq is devastated after the war. What to do? Let's grab something new: in the summer of 1990, the invasion of Kuwait begins. Kuwait is captured. The US-led coalition is actively assisted by Saudi Arabia. On February 17, the war with the coalition began. Iraq was divided into 2 two zones - north - Kurds, south - Shiites. All of Hussein's planes were shot down. The underground movement is flourishing. Saddam Hussein is trying to make nuclear weapons. It all ends in 2003, when the United States is sending troops into Iraq without the approval of the Security Council, in violation of international norms, under the pretext that nuclear weapons have been created in Iraq. Saddam was put on trial and executed. Now in Iraq it is not clear what.

Yemen

Before World War II, it was divided into southern and northern. South - English colony of Aden was founded in 1839. London owned it through the representation of the Bombay presidency. Aden was a strategic point of England in the Middle East. Point in the south of the red sea. Hadraumaut was part of eastern Yemen. In Yemen, the British were preparing an army. An Arab region was created in Jordan, a Berber region in Yemen.

In the north, the situation was different: the Zaydis sect ruled there. The leader is Imam Yahiya. The Zaydis are an extremely Shiite sect.

In the south, the British are trying to reform the eastern and western protectorates. 1954 - the organization of the Arab Emirates was organized. In 1962, the federation of southern Arabia. 67 g - there is a national front. 1968 The front seizes power and the People's Republic of South Yemen is formed. Leader Abdel Fatab Ismail appears. There is a struggle between groups. Since 68, southern Yemen begins to build socialism. In 70, the constitution comes into force. The country is named the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. Soviet specialists are going there. 1976 - The Yemeni Socialist Party was founded. Purpose: building a classless society. Secretary General - Abdel Fatab Ismail. His opponent is Nasser Muhammad. Confrontation for 80 years.

In 86, it leads to a political and armed crisis, abdel fatab and his supporters are exterminated. Ali nasser muhammad is in power, but his opponents do not give him.

In 1990, everything fails, the country is on the brink of a crisis. Food problems. In 90 g, southern Yemen voluntarily joins the northern one. In northern Yemen - Ali Abdal Assaleh. There are Zaydist sects. In 62, a revolution took place there, the imamate was overthrown, a republic emerged. North Yemen is a zone of confrontation between Egypt, they are for republican power, and Saudi Arabia, they support the monarchists. From 62 -67 g the war between monarchists and republicans. In 1968, an agreement takes place between Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Egypt retreats after defeat in '68, in 1968 the Saudis cease to support the monarchists. A republican regime was established. Chief Ali Abdullah Saleh, rules up to 90 grams alone. 1991 the unity of the country is consolidated. Republic of Yemen - all power has been seized by the clan of Ali Abdullah Saleh.

After - the crisis. still.

This lesson is devoted to the development of the countries of the Middle East and their relationship with the outside world in the second half of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century.

Background

The Middle East has long been an arena of struggle for the spheres of influence of the Western powers; the importance of the region has especially grown after the discovery of oil fields on the Persian Gulf coast at the beginning of the 20th century.

Turkey

The Ottoman Empire - a large state centered in modern Turkey - ceased to exist after the end of the First World War. The territories of the former Ottoman Empire were turned into the occupation zones of Great Britain, France, Italy and Greece. However, the national liberation movement of the Turks led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk defended independence. In 1923 Turkey was proclaimed a republic. During World War II, Turkey remained neutral, which favored its economic development.

Iran

After the end of the First World War, Iran retained a monarchy, landlord ownership, and a huge role for the Muslim clergy. Iran was heavily influenced by Great Britain. In particular, the oil fields discovered in Iran were under the control of British companies.

Iraq

Back in 1930, the Anglo-Iraqi treaty was signed, according to which Iraq was dependent on Great Britain. An attempt to renegotiate a similar agreement in 1948 sparked massive popular protests, suppressed by government repression.

Developments

Turkey

1952 g.- Turkey is moving closer to the United States and joining NATO.

1950-1958- rapid economic growth under the influence of liberal forces coming to power.

Since 1968- political instability. Speeches by workers and students, nationalists, Kurdish separatists.

1974 year- Turkish intervention in Cyprus. Formation of the Republic of Northern Cyprus, not recognized by anyone in the world except Turkey.

1980 g.- a military coup, as a result of which power in the country passed to the National Security Council. At the same time, the influence of Islam is growing in Turkish society (since the time of Ataturk, the influence of religion in Turkey has been weakened and the influence of the army has been strengthened).

2002 year- victory in the elections of the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party led by Recep Erdogan. Islamists first came to power after decades of dominance by liberal parties.

Now the two main rival political forces in Turkey are Islamists and the military.

Iraq

1955 g.- Under pressure from the West, the Baghdad Pact on the organization of a military-political bloc in Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan was signed in Baghdad. Displeased the Iraqi people.

1958 g.- military coup. The pro-Western monarchical regime fell. Iraq is declared an independent republic. Abdel Kerim Qasem is in power.

1968 year- As a result of a coup d'état, power passed to the nationalist wing of the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (BAAS). The leader of the Baath party, Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr, became president. During his reign, all oil resources were nationalized, an agreement of friendship and cooperation with the USSR was signed.

1979 year- the coming to power of Saddam Hussein, who concentrated absolute power in his hands. The role of ideology is increasing, Hussein claims to be the leader of the entire Arab world and is pursuing a tough anti-Western and anti-Israeli course.

Iraq. Before coming to power Saddam Hussein(see Fig. 2) in 1979 Iraq was a rather weak state, which was a field for the struggle of political and military forces among themselves. Constant coups and conflicts did not bring the economy of the state to stability and could not calm the population.

Beginning with 1979, new Iraqi leader Hussein establishes a one-man dictatorship, but at the same time carries out social transformations, forges good relations with the USSR and strives to become the main force in the region. V 1980 Iran-Iraq war breaks out, which lasted until 1988 and did not bring any visible success to the parties, only heavy human and economic losses.

In the 1980s. Iraq fought with Israel, Kuwait and several other countries in the region... V 1991 year in response to the war with Kuwait, the United States launched an operation " Desert Storm", During which the Iraqi army was defeated.

After the terrorist attacks September 11, 2001 US President George W. Bush accused Iraq and its leader of abetting terrorism and that, contrary to the UN decision, Hussein is producing weapons of mass destruction. V 2003 year despite the protests of a number of great powers, US and its NATO allies invade Iraq, and a month later they defeat the Iraqi army. Saddam Hussein will be arrested, convicted and hanged.

Iran. Until 1978, Iran was a hereditary monarchy. Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi pursued the policy of the so-called. " White revolution"- radical reforms aimed at overcoming age-old foundations and traditions and at transforming society, its Europeanization and modernization. The rights of women were expanded, the enlightenment of the people began, industrial modernization began, and Western values ​​were actively introduced.

The agrarian reform led to the landlessness of many peasant farms. Many peasants moved to the cities to earn money, began to go into industry, which was still so undeveloped that unemployment and poverty reigned in the cities.

The population, dissatisfied with their terrible social situation, increasingly began to rely on the age-old values ​​of Islam. The role of the clergy has grown. In 1978, protests by students, clergy and urban grassroots began in the country. The Shah ordered to shoot at the crowd. The first blood was shed. Many military men who did not want to bring events to civil war, refused to follow orders. Early 1979 the shah left the country. The new leader, around whom the representatives of the people began to gather, was the one who returned from exile for criticizing the "White Revolution" ayatollah(the highest spiritual title among the Shiites) Ruhollah Mousavi Khomeini.

During 1979, the Shah's supporters were defeated, Khomeini's followers seized the American embassy, ​​tk. it was in the United States that they saw the root of all troubles. In the country there was Islamic revolution- return to the purity of Islam and the Koran (see Fig. 3). In the 1980s. Khomeini was at war with Iraq and islamized Iranian society. They came to power Islamic fundamentalists- zealous and strict followers of Islamic traditions.

With the death of Khomeini in 1989, the role of fundamentalists gradually diminished. V 2005 year a radical Islamist became the president of Iran Ahmadinejad, pursuing a tough policy towards the main enemy - the United States.

Bibliography

1. A. V. Shubin General history... Recent history. 9th grade: textbook. For general education. institutions. M .: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
2. Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, grade 9. Moscow: Education, 2010.
3. Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9. Moscow: Education, 2011.

1. Academician ().
2. History of wars and military conflicts ().
3. RusOrient ().

Homework

1. Read paragraph 26, pages 290-296 of Shubin A.V.'s textbook, and answer question 3 on page 297.
2. What do you see as the reasons for the Islamic Revolution in Iran?
3. Why is the United States the main enemy for most of the countries of the Islamic world?