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The first revolution in england 1640 1660. English bourgeois revolution (1640-1649)

01.02.2021

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✪ Causes and beginning of the English Revolution (Russian) New story

✪ English bourgeois revolution and its results. Video tutorial on Of the general history 7th grade

✪ English Revolution: Civil Wars and the Cromwell Protectorate (Russian) New History

✪ Glorious Revolution in England

✪ Oliver Cromwell (narrated by historian Natalia Basovskaya)

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Terminology

The term "English Civil War" is a common name for the revolution, but historians often divide it into 2 or 3 different wars. Despite the fact that the concept describes the events that took place in England, the conflict also included the wars against Scotland and Ireland and their civil wars.

Unlike other civil wars in England, which were essentially a struggle for power, this war also affected the very way of government in Britain and Ireland, and the economic system. Therefore, historians call the English Civil War the English Revolution. In Marxist historiography, it is customary to call it the "English bourgeois revolution"

Causes of the revolution

Economic reasons for the revolution

Agriculture

But already in November of the same year, the "Long Parliament" gathered, to which the government had to yield - Pym, Hampden and other opposition leaders conducted a successful election campaign throughout the country. The “Long Parliament” differed from its predecessors only in the length of its work. He represented the same classes, mainly gentry and wealthy merchants. Despite the fact that internal contradictions were brewing in the opposition camp, in 1640 all classes united against the crown.

Parties to the conflict

The forces involved in the English Revolution represented the old feudal order on the one hand and the new capitalist order on the other. The traditional monarchy and feudal customs were defended by the state church and the conservative part of the landlords. Parliament, on the other hand, enjoyed the support of the developed trade and industrial groups in the city and the countryside, the yeomen, the progressive nobility, as well as the broader masses, when they, in the process of the unfolding struggle, realized which side was defending more just, albeit new, principles of the social contract.

The English Revolution of 1640 was a struggle of the bourgeoisie, which grew rich and intensified with the development of capitalism, for the conquest of political and economic power, while the monarchical government of Charles I represented the ancestral agricultural nobility, whose policy was limited solely to protecting their privileges and the status quo.

Religious conflict

In the spirit of the times, both opposing sides resorted to religious argumentation in their rhetoric, but social content was hidden behind purely theological-looking ideas. Each class created religious views adapted to its needs and interests, and sought to instill these views in others.

English historian Christopher Hill, author of books on the history of Puritanism, wrote: “We<...>we do not deny that the "Puritan Revolution" was both a political and religious struggle, but we affirm that it was something even more. The struggle was over the very nature of English society and its future development. " In the struggle between two social systems, two ideologies, the position of the monarchy was defended by the Anglican Church, and the views of the bourgeoisie were expressed by Puritanism. The official church called for obedience to the king. During the conflict, the clergy acted not only as a deterrent, but also as an offensive force, seeking to regain some of the lost church income and privileges, in particular, the tithe, which was originally charged for church needs, but was subsequently appropriated by secular landlords. After the assassination of the Duke of Buckingham, William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, became the chief royal advisor. Lod believed that the king ruled by "God's grace", and those who did not believe in the king's divinity, Lod called bad Christians.

During the reign of Mary Tudor (1553-1558), many Protestants went into exile. Having familiarized themselves with the ideas of one of the leaders of the Reformation of that time, John Calvin from Switzerland, they returned to their homeland when Elizabeth I was already on the throne. They were saddened by the situation in the country and by the fact that the Anglican Church borrowed a lot from Catholicism. The Puritans were a Protestant religious sect that wanted to cleanse the English Church of Catholic traditions.

Puritanism preached ideas that were suitable for the accumulation of capital and the development of capitalism: it taught frugality, sobriety, incessant labor, but without unnecessary enjoyment of the fruits of their labor. As the gap between the crown and the bourgeoisie widened, the attacks of the Puritans on the church, on its traditions and rituals, became more in tune with the criticism of the monarchy in parliament.

In parliament, the Puritans formed two parties: the Presbyterians and the Independents. The Presbyterians were a moderate party, they wanted to abolish the institution of the priesthood, and put elected elders accountable to the assembly at the head of the congregations. The Independents, unlike the Presbyterians, were against any church hierarchy. They formed a radical revolutionary party and fought to limit the power of the monarch. Oliver Cromwell became the leader of the Independents. The struggle of different sides for domination over the church was of paramount importance: whoever ruled over it could exert a powerful influence on the consciousness of the population. On the surface, the confrontation looked like an ideological struggle between Puritanism and Anglicanism. In reality, however, the struggle was for political power. The opposition realized that it was fighting not only a few bad advisers, and even not only with the king himself. She fought against an outdated feudal system.

The revolution

The beginning of the revolution

The Long Parliament put forward the main requirements:

demolition of the feudal bureaucratic machine,
preventing the creation of a standing army subject to the king,
the abolition of the financial measures of the crown, which caused a general economic disorder,
the control of the bourgeois parliament over the church as an instrument of propaganda.

The crisis was precipitated by an uprising in Ireland in 1641. Parliament was unanimous in its determination to pacify the first British colony, but the bourgeoisie flatly refused to entrust Charles with the army necessary for its new conquest. Thus, the parliament was forced to take over the army.

According to Arthur Haselrig's Militia Bill, the king was not supposed to become the supreme commander of the army. After the categorical refusal of parliament to change the bill, an angry Charles I decided it was time to strike back. On January 4, 1642, Charles ordered the arrest of John Pym, Arthur Haselrig, John Hampden, Denzil Alles and William Strode. All five managed to escape before the soldiers arrived - "the birds flew away," as the king summed up. Members of Parliament decided to form their own army. After failing to arrest five MPs, Karl fled London for York. Fearing that a civil war was imminent, Karl began to raise an army.

The conservative part of the nobility sided with the king. The future royalists left parliament under the pretext of not wanting to abolish the episcopate, but in reality (as one of the members of parliament said in the debate) because "if we establish equality in the church, we will come to equality in the state." The confiscation of the property of church landowners would potentially open the way for the confiscation of large property of secular owners. The big bourgeoisie was frightened and felt the need for some kind of agreement with the monarchy, reformed and in line with its interests, in order to delay the rise of popular excitement.

Thus, the conditions of the First Civil War were formed.

First civil war

The conciliatory mood in parliament gave the king the courage to reject all proposals, and on August 22, 1642, he raised his flag in Nottingham and then moved to London.

Feudal lords had more experience in waging war, which was considered a traditional occupation of the nobility. The king's nephew, Prince Rupert, was made commander-in-chief of the cavalry. Despite the fact that the prince was only twenty-three years old, he had already gained a lot of experience in the battles for the Dutch. Prince Rupert taught the cavalry tactics that he himself had learned in Sweden. The tactic included a full gallop with the enemy.

The main resources of parliament were the wealth of London, the administrative abilities of the bourgeoisie, and most importantly, the initiative and resourcefulness of the common people. Only the stubborn resistance of the population of the three major ports - Hull, Plymouth and Gloucester, as well as the defense of London citizens at Turnham Green in 1643 and their campaign to help Gloucester stopped the Royalist advance on London.

Oliver Cromwell managed to overcome the spontaneity of these efforts of the people, to organize the masses. He drew attention to the enemy cavalry. Although he did not have a military education, his experience as a landowner allowed him to understand horses. Cromwell knew that pikemen armed with 5-meter pikes could give a good rebuff to the "cavaliers". He also noticed that Rupert's cavalry was poorly disciplined and, in attack, each rider attacked an individual target. Cromwell then taught his riders not to crumble on attack and stick together. His cavalry took part in the Battle of Marston Moore in Yorkshire in July 1644. As a result of the victory at Marston Moore, the entire north of England fell into the hands of parliament.

The Army of Parliament won a complete victory at the Battle of Nesby in Northamptonshire on June 14, 1645, taking the most experienced enemies prisoner and seizing the weapons and equipment of the royal army. This battle was the final defeat of the Royalist forces. After her, Karl was no longer able to assemble a new army that would be able to give at least some rebuff to the parliamentary army. In 1646, Charles surrendered.

Second civil war

After the victory in the first civil war, contradictions emerged in the victor's camp. The Presbyterians entered into negotiations with the captive king, and they hoped to get rid of the revolutionary-minded army, sending it to conquer Ireland. But the soldiers created their own party to express their interests. The officers joined the movement, which received the name "levellers". At a general meeting in June 1647, the entire army made a solemn "commitment" not to disperse until the freedoms of England were secured.

In January 1647, Charles fled to Scotland, where he was soon caught. He was imprisoned at Hampton Court, but escaped in November 1647 and gathered a new army. During this time, he managed to convince the Scots to fight on his side. In May 1648, civil war broke out again, and this temporarily reconciled the giants (senior officers) with the levellers and once again rallied the army around Cromwell. Already in August 1648, Charles's army was defeated, and he was again taken prisoner. After the victory in the second civil war, the grandees and levelers united to expel the Compromisers from parliament (Pride Purge) and bring the king to justice. On January 30, 1649, after a short trial, Charles I was executed as "the enemy of all the good people of this nation." The monarchy was declared "unnecessary, burdensome and dangerous to the freedom, security and public interests of the people" and abolished. The House of Lords, also deemed "useless and dangerous", was also abolished. On May 19, 1649, a republic was proclaimed.

This was the peak of the development of the English Revolution.

The role of the army

The successes of the army of the parliament were based on the wealth and administrative abilities of the bourgeoisie, the initiative and resourcefulness of the common people, and the democracy of the organization. The anti-Royalist army of the Puritans was split into Independents and Presbyterians. The Independents sought to win the war with the king, the Presbyterians were in favor of a compromise with him. The Presbyterians relied on a professional Scottish army in the war, which was costly but performed little. In 1645, Cromwell managed to achieve the democratization of the army: according to the "Bill of Self-denial", all members of parliament resigned from their command. The peers lost their traditional right to command the armed forces, and a 22,000-strong "Army of the New Model" was created, relying on democratic elements in the army. General Thomas Fairfax became its commander in chief, while Oliver Cromwell became the commander of the cavalry. The strike force of the army was Cromwell's Yeomen cavalry, whose discipline was based on voluntary submission. The army was openly discussing any, including political, problems, its soldiers were more politically conscious and disciplined than the soldiers of conventional armies.

The Yeomen cavalry became the center of the organization of fragmented peasants and artisans. In the midst of ordinary soldiers and lower officers in 1647, a leveling movement arose. They organized the Councils of Soldiers' Agitators and the Army Council, at their disposal they had a party cash desk, a printing press, connections with London, with other armies and garrisons, with the navy. The Levellers advocated a radical democratization of the army and government bodies and the protection of the interests of small owners. Their political manifesto entitled "The Case of the Army" (eng. The Case of the Armie Truly Stated), was discussed at an enlarged meeting of the Army Council in Putney, as a result of which it was decided to develop a declaration that would be approved at a general meeting of the army and would become the basis of any future constitutional agreement. In 1649, after the victory of the army in the second civil war, the Pride purge of parliament, the execution of Charles I and the proclamation of the republic, the levelers were suppressed by the grandees, the leaders of this movement were shot. The unstable class position of small landlords-levellers, in whose midst there was an active stratification of property, doomed the movement to defeat.

The suppression of the levellers meant a break between the big bourgeoisie and the nobility from the popular forces. But the army was still needed as an instrument of the bourgeois transformations taking place in the 1650s:

Conquest of Ireland, expropriation of local landowners and peasants.
The conquest of Scotland, necessary to prevent the restoration of feudalism that could have emanated from there.
The demolition of fortresses, the disarming of the cavaliers and the imposition of ruinous taxes on them, which prevented the restoration of the old order.
Implementation of the Navigation Act, which was provided by the commanders of military ships.
Building a strong fleet for imperialist politics.
Sale to speculators of the land of the church, the crown and many prominent royalists to fund all these activities.

Protectorate

By the 1650s. the Independent leaders became more and more conservative as their interests were satisfied. Their rapprochement with the Presbyterians was renewed. By 1654, the land sale was over. A new class of landowners emerged who wanted peace and order to multiply their property.

On September 17, 1656, the second parliament of the protectorate opened. On March 25, 1657, a humble petition was passed inviting Cromwell to accept the title of king. But the army had a strong leveler and democratic tradition, despite repeated purges of politically suspicious elements. Under pressure from the top officers, who did not want to part with their influence in the state, Cromwell was forced to renounce the royal title. This did not prevent the parliament from giving his power a de facto royal character. The protectorate was declared hereditary. On June 26, 1657, a new parliamentary constitution was adopted. Executive power passed to the council of army grandees, which was under parliamentary control. The army was placed under the financial control of parliament.

Restoration

Oliver Cromwell died in September 1658 before the new constitution began to function any satisfactorily. Successor Richard Cromwell did not have the same influence in the army as his father. This led to the fact that the grandees carried out a palace coup and seized power. Richard Cromwell was forced to abdicate on May 25, 1659.

On May 7, 1659, the grandees again convened parliament. After 5 months of reign, he again had a conflict with the army. In October 1659, Major General John Lambert violently dispersed parliament and introduced a military dictatorship in England. The new hope of the conservative classes of the state, frightened by the radicalism of the English army, was the former royalist General George Monk, who commanded the British army of occupation in Scotland. In January 1660, Monk marched with his army from Scotland against Lambert. Lambert's army deserted. Lambert fled to London, followed by Monk. A parliament was proclaimed based on the old electoral law. This meant the restoration of the monarchy and the rule of the landowning classes. In May 1660, the new parliament called on Charles II to take the throne of the three kingdoms.

Results of the revolution

Revolutionary transformations of the 1640-1650s destroyed the social system of feudalism and created conditions for the free development of capitalism.

As a result of the land sale, a new class of landowners emerged - the Independent nobility. Land became a commodity, bourgeois relations were established. Representatives of the old regime who later returned were forced to join them. The defeat of the democratic movement and the lack of rights of smallholders opened the way for a ruthless increase in rents, fencing and driving the peasants from the land, which led to the formation of a landless proletarian class.

The king was stripped of financial independence and became the first state official to receive a parliamentary salary. The church lost its power and monopoly on the formation of public opinion, and also became completely dependent on parliament.

Monarchical monopolies and royal control disappeared forever from the sphere of industry and trade, except for the necessary bourgeoisie of the East India Company. Workshops and apprenticeship laws were destroyed. The revolution proclaimed freedom of trade and entrepreneurship. Of exceptional importance was the adoption in 1651 of the Navigation Act, according to which foreign trade transportation could only be carried out on English ships or on the ships of the country that produced this product. The law undermined the intermediary trade and shipping of England's most powerful rival, Holland.

The liberation of science and the impetus given by the revolution of free thought and experience were of great importance for the development of technology, which ensured the industrial and agrarian revolution of the 18th century. The ideas of the republican system, the rule of the people, the equality of all before the law, which the revolution carried, influenced the history of other European states.

Chronology

, November 3 - after an eleven-year hiatus, a parliament was convened, soon out of control of the crown and later nicknamed the Long Parliament, as it operated until 1653.
- Parliament refused to finance the suppression of the rebellion in Ireland and passed a law that it was impossible to dissolve parliament without its consent. In August parliament passed the Great Remontstration, a collection of articles listing the crimes of the crown. After that, state power was actually concentrated in the hands of parliament.
- attempts of King Charles I to dissolve Parliament lead to a confrontation between supporters of Parliament (English Roundheads - "roundheads") and supporters of the king ("royalists").
- The King leaves London on 10 January.
- On July 4, a Defense Committee was created to lead the military activities of the parliament.
- On July 6, parliament decided to recruit a 10,000-strong army, appointing the Commander-in-Chief of the Earl of Essex.
- On August 22, the king announces the beginning of an operation to suppress the rebellion of the Earl of Essex, which in fact means a declaration of war on Parliament. Oxford became the residence of the "cavaliers".
- October 23 - Battle of Edgegill - the first major battle of the parliamentary forces of "Roundheads" and "Cavaliers", the second - on November 13th at Turnm Green.
September 20 - First Battle of Newbury. Military alliance with the Scots.
- Scottish intervention. Battle of Marston Moore. The Cavaliers suffered a crushing defeat in the north of England.
, June 14 - the battle of Naseby: the defeat of the "cavaliers".
, June 24 - the capture of Oxford: the flight of the king to Scotland.
- the Scots gave the king round-headed for a solid fee. Parliament's attempt to dissolve the army met with resistance from the levellers. Cromwell was forced to make partial concessions to the rebels. The cavaliers took advantage of the split in the army and tried to take revenge by entering into an alliance with the Scots.

, 17-19 August - Battle of Preston: Defeat of the Scots. On October 4, Cromwell's cavalry entered Edinburgh.
- Pride cleaning.
, January 30 - the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of an independent

English bourgeois revolution 1640-1660 was one of the first in Europe, marking the transition from absolutism to constitutional monarchy. Its most important feature was the limited socio-political demands of the opposition, and, consequently, the nature of the revolutionary transformations in the field of statehood and law. This was due to the fact that the British bourgeoisie opposed the absolute monarchy and the omnipotence of the church, not in alliance with the people, as, for example, in France, but with the "new nobility."

The confrontation between the king and parliament, which led to the revolution, emerged at the beginning of the 17th century.

In December 1641, parliament voted in favor of the Great Remonstration (condemnation), which proclaimed a course to limit the powers of the king and his ministers. The drafters of the document themselves believed that it would lead to the restoration of "legal principles of management and law." The Great Remontstration announced the liquidation of the Star Chamber, limited the judicial powers of the crown and the jurisdiction of the Privy Council.

The document established the maximum period of non-parliamentary rule, which should not exceed 3 years. Now the parliament could not be dissolved earlier than 50 days after its convocation. Restricted was "arbitrary power, claiming on behalf of His Majesty to tax subjects and levy taxes on their property without the consent of parliament." This state of affairs was declared illegal. Thus, the parliament was gradually transformed from a royal to a national authority. The Great Remontstration legitimately consolidated many of the transformations carried out during the years of the "long" parliament. This exacerbated political confrontation in society and led to revolutionary upheavals.

The most important result of the revolution of 1640-1660. there was a change in the form of political government. Absolutism was replaced first by a constitutional dualistic monarchy, and then by a parliamentary one. The Brad Declaration of 1660, which marked the end of the revolution in England, restored the monarchist tradition in the country. During this period, two opposing groups emerged in parliament: the Tories, which expressed the interests of the court aristocracy and part of the gentry, and the Whigs, which united representatives of the opposition: merchants, the financial bourgeoisie, the top of the gentry, and the industrial bourgeoisie.

The characteristic features of the type of statehood that developed during the years of the revolution were: state supremacy of parliament, separation of powers and accountability of all branches of government, the rule of law.

The most important document that fixed the redistribution of powers was the "Act on Better Ensuring the Freedom of Subjects and on the Prevention of Imprisonment Overseas" of 1679.

The criminal procedural norms formulated in the act are the basis of criminal proceedings in many modern states, including Western European countries, Russia and the United States. The law, limiting the king's omnipotence and the arbitrariness of officials in the field of criminal law and legal proceedings, proclaimed the inviolability of the person, as well as the principles of the presumption of innocence, legality, and promptness of justice. This allows us to consider it the most important constitutional document in the history of England along with the Magna Carta of 1215. Its significance lies in the list of criminal procedural guarantees against arbitrary arrests and secret reprisals. The most important of them was that the act provided for the responsibility of jailers and judges for violation of the relevant articles of the law.

However, the significance of the document as a valid source of legal practice was limited by a number of circumstances:

1) its action could be suspended by parliament;

2) the articles of the act did not apply to civil cases;

3) the amount of the bail provided by the law for the release of the accused on bail was significant, and not every citizen could pay it.

2. The "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 in England. Bill of Rights 1689

Historical events, called the "Glorious Revolution" in the research literature, were an important stage in the evolution of English absolutism into a parliamentary monarchy.

James II, who ruled in England since 1685, pursued a policy that provoked strong opposition from both the Whigs and Tories. Dissatisfied with the anti-Protestant policy of the king, they united their oppositional efforts and actually carried out a coup d'état, during which the monarch was deposed, and his place on the throne was taken by the invited Prince William of Orange, who was the son-in-law of James II who fled the country.

The "Glorious Revolution" completed the formulation of a compromise between the country's leading political forces: the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy. Political power in the center and in the localities remained in the hands of the landed aristocracy in exchange for guarantees that the interests of the top of the financial and industrial bourgeoisie would be respected. This consensus became the most important element of English statehood in the 17th-19th centuries, at the same time indicating the tendency of its evolution from a dualistic monarchy to a parliamentary one.

The most important political documents that secured the beginning of the redistribution of powers between the king and parliament were the Bill of Rights of February 13, 1689 and the Dispensation Act of June 12, 1701.

The Bill of Rights became the foundation of the English constitutional monarchy, consolidating parliamentary supremacy in fiscal policy legislation. The purpose of the document, initially called the Declaration of Rights, was to ensure "the restoration and confirmation of ancient rights and liberties."

It was now declared illegal to suspend a piece of legislation on the initiative of the crown without parliamentary consent and to levy fees and taxes without parliamentary approval. The king's powers were also limited in relation to the leadership of the army and navy. "The recruitment and maintenance of a permanent army within the kingdom in peacetime" could only be carried out with the consent of parliament.

The Bill proclaimed a number of civil and political rights: freedom of speech (the right to petition the king and proclaim the illegality of the persecution for that) freedom of expression, political pluralism, etc.

The document formulated the principles of the legislative branch in the system of state political bodies: free elections to parliament, regularity of its convocations, independence from the executive branch and dr. Subsequently, these provisions were clarified, and the term of office of the parliament was determined first for three years, and then for seven years.

Bill's VII article introduced the idea sub the equanimity of royal power, and the XI article emphasized that this power is established in society as a result of the compromise reached “for eternity ... on the advice and with the consent spiritual and secular lords and communities sitting in parliament ... ". Thus, in real political practice, the ideas of J. Milton and J. Locke about equality before the law and the contractual origin of power in society were embodied. The tendency of constitutional consolidation of the supremacy of power of parliament reflectedas b in the content of the Act of Dispensation of June 12, 1701.

3. The Dispensation Act 1701 Evolution of the Principle of Responsible Government

The Future Crown Restriction Act and 0 better ensuring the rights and freedoms of subjects (the Act of Disposition) clarified and developed a number of provisions of the Bill of Rights of 1689, mainly in the field of regulating the order of succession to the throne

The need for such a document was caused by the fact that William of Orange did not leave heirs. The act contained a number of conditions and requirements that a pretender to the English throne had to meet. A ban was proclaimed on the occupation of the throne by an adherent of Catholicism. Now only a supporter of the Anglican faith could become the king of England. In addition, the king was forbidden to leave the country without the consent of parliament, which can be seen as restricting the monarch's freedom of movement. He was deprived of the right of pardon in relation to persons prosecuted by way of impeachment

In addition to regulating the succession to the throne, the document paid great attention to further clarifying the prerogatives of the legislative, executive and judicial powers. The limitation of royal power was manifested in the fact that all acts of the executive

the authorities, in addition to the king's signature, needed the signature of the royal ministers (counter-signature), on whose advice and consent they were accepted. This principle has become important condition the establishment of the institution of "responsible government".

The Dispensation Act significantly changed the status of the legislative and judiciary, taking her out of the influence of the crown. No person who received payment for office under the king, or a pension from the crown, could be a member of the House of Commons. The judges, who were previously subordinate to the king and responsible to him, could not now be removed from office at his sole request, except on the proposal of both houses of parliament. The legislative division of powers between the branches of government in order to establish their independence from each other is fixed in the Positions Act of 1707.

In the conclusion of the document, the inviolability of the principle of the rule of law of the royal power was confirmed.

Thus, at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. In England, the most important principles and institutions of bourgeois state law were formalized: the supremacy of parliament in the field of legislative initiative, the right of parliament to vote the budget and determine the military contingent, the principle of the irremovability of judges, the rule of law of all branches state power responsible government. However, the final delineation of powers of the legislative and executive powers did not take place and dualism in the political system of England continued to persist, which contributed to the idea of a triune parliament (king and two chambers).

In the context of further socio-political development, the final approval of the parliamentary monarchy took place, a sign of which was the formation of a responsible government. The changes associated with this process, as a rule, did not receive formalization in the form of constitutional acts, but took the form of conventional norms (agreements). This is a unique feature of English constitutional law.

An important political event that has the most significant for the entire European civilization of the 17th century. consequences, became the English bourgeois revolution of 1642-1660. England on the eve of the 40s. XVII century. was an agrarian country with a rapidly gaining momentum of development of bourgeois-entrepreneurial relations and the preservation of the feudal-absolutist power of the kings of the Stuart dynasty, which ruled in Scotland from 1373 to 1714 and in England from 1603 to 1714 (except for 1649-1660) (Fig. . 2.9).

Rice. 2.9.

Of the 4.5 million population of England, rural residents accounted for over 75%. In an English village of the XVI century. there was still a small top of the free peasant-free-riders(which later laid the foundation for the emergence of capitalist farmers), most of the peasants were hereditary holders of the master's land - copyholders, who were charged with the obligation to pay the lords a monetary rent in the amount established by agreement and custom. Another group was the so-called leaseholders, leasing landlord's land on a short-term or long-term lease for a fee. During these years, entrepreneurship developed intensively and extensively. The landowners, feudal lords, who embarked on the path of entrepreneurship, fenced off their landholdings, driving the peasants from them, and raised sheep. Shipping developed. British entrepreneurs rushed to India and America. Manufacturing and banking flourished. All these types of entrepreneurship needed legal registration and freedom of action, and the "divine" royal power in every possible way limited entrepreneurship.

In the country by the beginning of the 1640s. a social conflict has ripened. In an effort to cut the knot of this conflict, King James I (1603-1625) dissolved the English parliament three times, in 1604, 1614, 1621, where the desire to limit the power of the crown to a constitutional framework grew. The successor of James I, King Charles I (1625-1649), also twice, in 1625 and 1626, dissolved the rebellious parliament, and after the parliament in 1628 presented to the king its "Petition of Right", Charles I in 1629. again dissolved parliament and from 1629 to 1640 ruled alone. During these years, the people of England and Scotland were split into two opposing camps: the feudal-absolutist, headed by the king, and the bourgeois-democratic, which included bourgeois entrepreneurs, new nobles, merchants, artisans and part of the peasants. Socio-economic contradictions were supplemented by religious contradictions, the struggle between supporters Anglican(Protestant) and Presbyterian(Puritan, also Protestant) church.

For the Anglican Church, there was a new shock to the overthrow of the monarchy and the activities of Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s, which gave voice to the more radical offshoots of English Calvinism. Under Charles II (1660-1685), the Anglican Church regained its former importance. Since that time, it has developed unhindered both in Britain and in the space of the emerging British Empire (Fig. 2.10).

Rice. 2.10.

In April 1640 the Parliament of England met again, but in May 1640 it was again dissolved by the King (Short Parliament). In November 1640, the parliament met again and, against the will of the king, sat until 1653. This parliament was named Dolgiy and became not only the center of active opposition to Charles I, but actually the second power in the country: it established standing committees (administrative, financial, etc.). and introduced local parliamentary committees in the counties.

The country began transformations aimed at limiting the power of the king: in February 1641, the "Three-Year Act" was adopted on a three-year cycle in the work of parliament, a committee on religious affairs was created with the aim of the union of churches, and, finally, in November 1641, the "Great remontration ”, a program document of 204 articles, where the abuses of the king were revealed and the contours of a bourgeois-democratic state were determined. In response to its adoption, Charles I in January 1642 declared war on parliament.

The first civil war began. It continued with varying success until August 1647 (on February 1, 1647, Charles I was imprisoned in Holmby Castle, and in August the revolutionary army entered London).

Over these five years, significant changes have taken place in England:

? the treaty-convention of England and Scotland, Scotland from a colony became an equal ally of England (autumn 1643);
? the law on the abolition of the episcopate forcibly established from 1646 the Presbyterian confession;
? an act was adopted on the sequestration (confiscation) of the lands of the episcopate, royalists (supporters of the king) and the crown, and from 1643 these lands were sold;
? On February 24, 1646, the law "On the abolition of knightly holding" was adopted, an agrarian law that broke the feudal shackles and gave scope to bourgeois capitalist relations in the countryside;
? tax reform was carried out.

However, already in those years, the split among the revolutionaries intensified. In their ranks there were proponents of active actions - levelers (literally "equalizers") - petty-bourgeois strata who advocated universal suffrage, a republic, their leaders were R. Overton, W. Walvin, J. Lilburn, and the Independents (literally "independent") - supporters of the republican system based on the observance of the estate. Their leader was Oliver Cromwell.

The aggravation of relations between the Levellers and Independents led to the second civil war, which lasted from February 1648 to May 19, 1649 and ended with the victory of the Independents and the proclamation of England as an Independent Republic. Earlier, on January 30, 1649, King Charles I was executed. By an act of parliament, the king's power was deposed, and the House of Lords was dissolved. Parliament is declared unicameral and the highest authority in the country.

However, the republican system in England did not solve social problems. Unrest continued in the army, the movement of the so-called "true levellers" - diggers (literally "diggers") - of the extreme left wing, headed by J. Winstanley, intensified. The army was engulfed in this movement. The Levellers introduced the People's Agreement to parliament, a document promoting democratic change.

In 1643-1652, the new government suppressed the Irish movement for freedom and equality. The population of Ireland was reduced from 1.5 million in 1646 to 850 thousand in 1652, of which 150 thousand were English settlers. Ireland again found itself in enslaving dependence on England. In the same years, an uprising in Scotland was suppressed, and she was included in England.

Domestic and foreign policy of the long parliament in 1649-1653 was aimed at strengthening capitalist relations in all spheres of social life. But by 1653, disappointment with what had been achieved and dissatisfaction with the Long Parliament was growing in all strata of England. A new crisis erupted, its result was the dispersal of the Long Parliament by Cromwell.

The Small Parliament created by Cromwell (from July 4, 1653 to December 12, 1653) was again incapacitated and was dissolved by Cromwell. On December 16, 1653, the Council of State, created by Cromwell, proclaimed Cromwell Lord Protector for Life

(defender) of the republic. A document was adopted on this matter, which played the role of the Constitution and was called the "Control Tool". Cromwell's protectorate lasted for about six years, from December 16, 1653 to May 1659, when the Second Republic was proclaimed in England, which existed for exactly one year. During the Cromwell protectorate, the country began to resemble a military-police camp, it was divided into districts headed by a major general. Any gatherings of commoners were dispersed by force.

The new parliament, convened by Cromwell on September 3, 1654, was also dissolved by him on January 22, 1655 as objectionable to the dictator (the deputies were accused of inactivity). Cromwell began to rule alone. In 1656, he signed a new constitutional document, The Humble Petition and Council. They provided for the restoration of the monarchy and the House of Lords. Cromwell was entitled to the royal title (the thesis of the restoration of the monarchy caused outrage among Cromwell's entourage and was removed from this document). The new, already bicameral parliament of 1656-1658 in February 1658 he was again dissolved by Cromwell, who again established his own dictatorship. On September 3, 1658, Cromwell died at the age of 59. His heir and successor, son Richard Cromwell, was a weak man, unable to continue his father's business, although on April 22, 1659, he dissolved parliament.

In October 1659, the newly assembled Long Parliament was dispersed by a Council of Officers, which elected a Security Committee. However, part of the army, led by the commander of the army in Scotland, General Monk, opposed the Committee of Officers, and on February 3, 1660, General Monk's troops entered London without hindrance. On April 4, 1660, Monk published The Declaration of Delusion, a document of the Restoration of the Stuart Monarchy. Gathered on the basis of this declaration on April 25, 1660, the Convention on May 1, 1660 proclaimed restoration - the restoration of the Stuart monarchy. Charles II (1660-1685) became the king of England, after his death James II (1685-1688) ruled England.

The English Revolution was over. But she changed the portrait of England, which essentially became a bourgeois monarchy. Capitalist relations won a victory in it, and this is the main result of the revolution.

After the revolution, the political system of England evolved. In 1688, Jacob I's daughter Maria, her husband William III of Orleans, King of Holland, staged a coup. William III became king of England (1688-1701), ruled with Mary Stuart. England became a constitutional monarchy. The power of the king was limited by the powers of Parliament. This is exactly what the Independentists dreamed about - power was concentrated in the hands of entrepreneurs and was illuminated by the king's charisma.

Capitalism has been actively developing in England since 1689. Parliament was dominated by the Whigs, a party that emerged in the late 1660s. in Scotland, a supporter of Protestantism and constitutional monarchy. This party was opposed by the Tory party - supporters of Catholicism, also in favor of royalty. The rule of the Whigs was until 1760, their struggle with the Tories was tough and uncompromising.

Thus, the XVII century. went down in history as a period of intensification of the irreconcilable struggle between the feudal-absolutist and bourgeois-democratic tendencies in the development of statehood. The emergence of an influential stratum of entrepreneurs strengthened the desire of a significant part of enlightened, progressive-minded people to democratize public life and state power. The strength of capitalism was behind this aspiration. At the same time, the conservative feudal-absolutist system with its levers (economic, police-force, spiritual and religious) continued to stifle all democratic tendencies and principles. The winter of absolutism tried in every possible way to delay the onset of the spring of bourgeois democracy. As a result, the antagonism between them became the main social cause of revolutionary upheavals in European civilization in modern times.

For Anglicans, the main cleric is a bishop, dependent on the king, appointed by the government, and for Presbyterians, a presbyter elected by the community.

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The emergence and development of the constitutional monarchy in England

Results of the revolution of 1640-1660 in England. Tories and Whigs. Habeas Corpus Act.

Prerequisites for the revolution:

Industrial boom (intensive development of the economy took place in the agrarian region).

The land belonged mainly to the owners of manufactories and the new nobility (gentry).

The dissatisfaction of all strata with the existing order grew, as well as the stubborn reluctance of the king to adjust his domestic and foreign policy to the interests of the nation became the reasons for the revolution.

There are 2 stages of parliamentary rule: the existence of a short parliament and a long one.

Short Parliament:

Parliament refused to grant subsidies to the king.

1641 - The Great Remontstration - a course to limit the powers of the king and his officials. 204 pips Demand for strengthening the rule of law. List of the main opponents.

The king, in response, formed his objections.

Public opinion: the king rules alone, but within the framework of privileges.

The first stage of the revolution - the constitutional one - begins with the activities of the Long Parliament.

In general, the history of the English bourgeois revolution is usually divided into four stages:

2) the first civil war (1642-1646);

3) the struggle to deepen the democratic content of the revolution, the second civil war (1646-1649);

4) the Independent Republic (1649-1660).

As a rule, historians divide the first civil war (1642-1646) into two stages:

1) from 1642 to the summer of 1644, when parliament was predominantly defensive, and the military initiative was mainly in the hands of the king;

2) from the summer of 1644 to 1646, when the initiative in hostilities was completely on the side of parliament.

The struggle between the Independents and Presbyterians escalated in the spring of 1648 - a second civil war broke out, unleashed by the king and the Presbyterian parliament. Only the support of the levellers ensured the victory of the Independent army, within which there was a split between the commanding elite (giants) and the rank and file.

After the victory, Cromwell removed active Persbyterian members from parliament (Pride purge). The remaining parliamentarians formed a "parliamentary outgrowth" obedient to the Independents.

Independent Republic. After the execution of the king in 1649, Parliament declared England a republic. The House of Lords was abolished, and the House of Commons declared itself the supreme power. The State Council became the highest executive body.

In January 1647, Charles fled to Scotland, where he was soon caught. He was imprisoned at Hampton Court, but managed to escape in November 1647 and gathered a new army. During this time, he managed to convince the Scots to fight on his side. In August 1648, Charles's army was defeated, and he was again taken prisoner. On January 30, 1649, Charles I was executed.

England was declared a constitutional monarchy. Cromwell took the title of "Lord Protector", that is, the protector of parliament, and in fact became a military dictator, initiating the so-called dictatorship of Cromwell.

During the war, about 100,000 people died. Most of them died due to army fever (a type of typhus) rather than on the battlefield.

The crown was transferred on conditions dictated by parliament, that is, a limited (constitutional) monarchy with a strong parliament was established, which secured the bourgeoisie's access to state power. Thus, the main goal of the revolution was achieved.

Among the most important results of the English Revolution - the destruction of absolutism, a blow to feudal property, which actually turned into bourgeois property. The revolution proclaimed freedom of trade and entrepreneurship. Of exceptional importance was the adoption in 1651 of the Navigation Act, according to which foreign trade transportation could only be carried out on English ships or on the ships of the country that produced this product. The law undermined the intermediary trade and shipping of England's most powerful rival, Holland. The political result of the revolution was the beginning of the formation in England of the rule of law, civil society. The ideas of the republican system, the rule of the people, the equality of all before the law, which the revolution carried, influenced the history of other European states.

Results of the revolution:

At the end of 1653, a constitution was introduced, called the "Instrument of Government" and consolidated the military dictatorship of Cromwell.

The supreme executive power was vested in the Lord Protector and the Council of State, which consisted of no less than 13 and no more than 21 members. The appointment of councilors depended on the Lord Protector.

Under the new constitution, the supreme legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the Lord Protector and Parliament. The parliament was unicameral. Participation in the elections was limited by a rather high property qualification, which was 100 times higher than that which existed before the revolution.

The Constitution explicitly declared Cromwell's Lord Protector for life, thus securing his personal dictatorship.

In 1657 the upper chamber was restored, local government was concentrated in the hands of the generals of the Cromwellian army.

Conclusion: "The instrument of government" consolidated the regime of individual power, in terms of the breadth of powers corresponding to the monarchical. From that time on, the movement began to reverse - from the republic to the monarchy.

In 1660 the British bourgeois revolution ended with the restoration of the Stuarts.

Two political parties are emerging in England. One of them - the Tories - united the adherents of the king, supporters of strengthening his power. The second party - the Whigs - represented the interests of the bourgeoisie and the middle nobility, opposed to the crown.

For a long time, representatives of the Tories dominated the Parliament of England. The Whigs, being in opposition and being persecuted, tried to pass a law through parliament to guarantee the immunity of citizens. They managed to do this only in 1679, when the Whigs had a majority in parliament.

The new law was called the Habeas Corpus Act, or Act to better ensure the freedom of subjects and to prevent imprisonment overseas. In accordance with this law, any arrested person could, personally or through relatives and friends, apply to one of the highest courts of England with a demand to issue an order on Habeas Corpus. According to this order, the person in charge of the arrested person, on pain of paying a large fine in favor of the victim, and in case of repeated disobedience - dismissal from office, had to take the arrested person to court within 24 hours, indicating the reason for the arrest. The court, having considered the grounds for the arrest, made a decision either to release the arrested person on bail pending the trial, which will consider the case on the merits, or to keep him under arrest, or to release him completely. A person released under the Habeas Corpus order could not be arrested again for the same reason, on pain of a £ 500 fine imposed on the perpetrator of the re-arrest. A judge who refused to issue an order for Habeas Corpus was also fined £ 500.

The procedure for release before trial on bail was known in England before. However, for the first time, the responsibility of persons guilty of non-fulfillment of the instructions provided in the Act was established.

The Act did not apply to persons arrested for high treason or a serious criminal offense, as well as those arrested under civil affairs... Parliament retained the right to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act in the event of popular unrest and hostilities.

The immediate significance of this Act at the time of its adoption was to provide a guarantee of immunity for members of the Whig Parliament and their adherents from royal persecution. Later, the Act became one of the most important constitutional documents in England.

The habeas corps act was approved by Charles II on the condition that the Whigs would not oppose the occupation of the throne by Jacob II. This was the first constitutional compromise in post-revolutionary England, which later developed under the influence of such compromises.

"Glorious Revolution" 1688 Bill of Rights 1689 Dispensation Act 1701

The new King James II (1633-1701) ascended the throne in 1685. He openly pursued an anti-bourgeois policy, and the parliament, although it consisted mainly of Tories, did not support him. In these conditions, the Tories and Whigs made a compromise and, joining forces, made a "glorious revolution." As a result of this event, William of Orange (1650-1702), the stadtholder of the Netherlands, was elevated to the English throne in 1689. From that moment on, a constitutional monarchy was finally established in England.

The essence of the new compromise was that political power, both in the center and in the localities, remained in the hands of the landowners who pledged to respect the interests of the bourgeoisie.

Bill of rights. The new king, upon accession to the throne, signed the Declaration of Right, which was later named the Bill of Rights. The Bill's central importance is to assert the supremacy of parliament in the field of legislation.

Like the above-mentioned constitutional documents, the Bill of Rights begins with a listing of the violations of laws committed by Jacob II.

Further, it is indicated that the king does not have the right, without the consent of parliament, to suspend the operation of laws, to release anyone from under their action, or to authorize any exemptions from the laws. The king cannot collect fees in his favor without the consent of parliament. The recruitment and maintenance of troops is possible only with the consent of the parliament.

Parliamentary elections must be free. Freedom of speech and debate is ensured in parliament; prosecution for speaking in parliament is prohibited.

The king's subjects have the right to petition him, and no one can be prosecuted for such petitions. It is forbidden to demand excessive bail, fines, apply penalties not provided for by law.

So, the Bill of Rights defined the position of parliament in the system of government bodies and, entrusting it with broad powers in the field of legislation, drew, albeit not very clearly, the border between the executive and legislative branches of government. The king, along with parliament, participates in legislative activity, he has the right of absolute veto. In addition, the king retains significant executive and judicial power. In 1694, a new Triennial Act was adopted, establishing that parliament should be convened every three years and the duration of its work is three years. And although, as before, the convocation and dissolution of parliament were the prerogative of the king, it turned from an exclusive right into an obligation.

Dispensation Act. In 1701, another important constitutional law in England was adopted - the Act of Dispensation, or the Law of Succession. An important place in it was occupied by the question of the order of succession to the throne after the childless William of Orange and his wife. In addition, the law confirmed the limitation of royal power in favor of parliament.

For the development of the constitutional system of England, the following two provisions were of the greatest importance. One of them established the so-called principle of countersignature, according to which the acts issued by the king are valid only subject to the signature of the respective minister responsible for the proposal. This was the beginning of ministerial responsibility. While in front of the king.

The second important provision was to establish the principle of the irremovability of judges. Until that time, the judges held their offices as long as it was "fit for the king" According to the Ordinance Act, they carry out their duties as long as they "behave well." They can be removed from office only by decision of parliament. This rule was of great importance for the development of the English Constitution, as it proclaimed the separation of the judiciary from the executive.

Thus, we can say that the English Constitution is built on the idea of separation of powers, although it does not carry it out consistently enough.

The development of a constitutional monarchy in England. Constitutional precedents. Cabinet of Ministers. Responsible government.

By the beginning of the 18th century. In England, four important constitutional laws were passed (the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, the Three Years Act, the Dispensation Act), which formed the written part of the English Constitution. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it is not a single legislative act. Along with individual written laws, an important part of the English Constitution is the unwritten, conditional rules that have become established in practice and have become a constitutional precedent. It is the establishment of these rules that determines the development of the English Constitution in the 18th century. The main ones include: non-attendance by the king of cabinet meetings; the formation of a government from members of the party that won the elections; collegial responsibility of the cabinet of ministers; the king's abandonment of the veto.

In the constitutional development of England in the XVIII century. two main areas can be distinguished:

rise of parliament

the formation of the cabinet of ministers.

Parliament. As before, the Parliament of England was bicameral. The Upper House (House of Lords) consisted of persons holding seats either by inheritance, or by office, or by appointment of the king.

The lower house (house of commons) was formed on the basis of suffrage. Both political parties (Tories and Whigs) sought to limit the circle of voters, but the Whigs defended the property qualification in general, and the Tories - the land qualification.

The lower house in its social composition differed little from the upper one, which determined the dominance of the aristocracy in parliament. But the English aristocracy was not a closed estate - its ranks were replenished at the expense of wealthy industrialists and merchants; she knew how to represent not only her own interests, but also the interests of the bourgeoisie, thanks to which the leading position of the aristocracy was preserved. Such a definite social composition of the parliament provided the possibility of expanding its powers: the ruling classes were not afraid to entrust it with full power.

Since 1707, the royal power has ceased to use the right of veto, thereby transferring the full legislative power to the parliament.

In 1716, the Seven Years Act was passed, extending the term of office of parliament to seven years. This made him even more independent from the crown, as well as from the voters. The sessions of the parliament were held in secret, and those who divulged the essence of the parliamentary debates were persecuted. Parliament has firmly taken its place in the system of state power.

Cabinet of Ministers.

In the XVIII century. in England, a cabinet of ministers was created - a body that occupies a special place in the state system.

Having deprived the king of legislative power, parliament sought to restrict his activities in the executive field, pushing the monarch away from managing the affairs of the cabinet and placing the activities of the cabinet under its control. This was accomplished quite successfully through constitutional precedent.

One of the first unwritten rules to ensure the independence of the cabinet was that the cabinet sat without a king. From the middle of the 20s of the XVIII century. the king did not attend cabinet meetings, as a result of which its members did not experience direct royal pressure, which increased the independence of this body and, moreover, contributed to the creation of the post of prime minister.

The relationship between the cabinet and the king changed due to the recognition of the principle of non-responsibility of the monarch, expressed in the formula "The king cannot be wrong." The approval of this principle was a logical continuation of the countersignature rule formulated in the Act of Dispensation of 1701, according to which the minister is responsible for the signed document. The assertion of the principle of non-responsibility of the monarch deprived him of real power. The king could not exercise any of the many prerogatives on his own.

Shifting responsibility to members of the cabinet led to parliamentary control over their activities. The responsibility of members of the cabinet to parliament was expressed in the resignation of a member of the cabinet, whose policies did not receive the support of the House of Commons. In the first half of the 18th century. the parliamentary responsibility of cabinet members was individual. Joint responsibility of ministers as essential principle developed English parliamentarism was formed by the end of the XVIII century.

An important provision that weakened the king's influence on the cabinet of ministers was the restriction of the royal right to appoint and dismiss senior government officials, which is associated with the strengthening of parliament and political parties. The king was forced to reckon with the opinion of the parliamentary majority. Thus, in 1727, George II dismissed Prime Minister R. Walpole, who enjoyed the support of the House of Commons, but soon had to return him to power, since parliament did not approve the civil list desirable for the king.

The weakening of the king's influence on the cabinet of ministers increases the control over the latter by the parliament.

During the XVIII century. the most important function of parliament continues to develop - the financial one. Direct control was established over all public finances, which undoubtedly contributed to the strengthening of the power of the parliament.

By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. the authority of the speaker of the lower house is growing. From a "servant of the king" he turns into a "servant of the chamber." At the same time, there is a consolidation of the House of Commons, which has become a corporate body. The work of the parliament was streamlined: the timing of the sessions, their duration, the rules for holding debates, the order of passing the bills were determined.

By the end of the 18th century. parliament became the sovereign master in the country. The constitutional monarchy has grown into a parliamentary one, the hallmark of which is the existence of a responsible government. Such a government is formed from the leaders of the party with the majority in parliament and is collectively accountable to the House of Commons.

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Background

James I and Charles I of the Stuarts strove for absolute power, not restrained by parliament. Jacob I sold monopolies on the production and trade of certain goods, which led to the ruin of manufactories and artisans, and introduced new taxes. The Puritans, who were growing rapidly in the country, were persecuted. All this caused discontent among the population.

Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629 and did not convene it for 11 years. He also turned the Star Chamber and the High Commission into instruments for fighting the opponents of absolutism. In fact, with their help, the king dealt with his opponents.

Developments

1637 g.- an uprising in Scotland demanding complete political and religious independence from England. The cause of the uprising is the struggle to preserve and establish the Presbyterian (Calvinist) church.

1639 g.- the peace treaty between England and Scotland. While maintaining union, Charles promised the Scots independence in both religious and secular affairs.

April 13 - May 5, 1640- A short parliament that Charles I convened after an 11-year hiatus to approve new taxes. The money was needed to continue the war with Scotland.

1640-1653- Session of the Long Parliament (over 12 years). By his decision, the Star Chamber and the High Commission were dissolved. In addition, the parliament was assigned the right to establish taxes. The House of Commons cannot be dissolved without its own consent. Henceforth, the parliament was to be convened every three years. All parliamentary measures were aimed at limiting the absolute power of the monarch.

1641 g.- Parliament adopted the Great Remonstrance (from the English remonstrance - "protest", "objection") - a document that lists the king's miscalculations and his abuse of power (the text of the Great Remonstrance).

1642 g.- Karl fled from London to Oxford. The beginning of the civil war of the royalists and supporters of parliament.

1642 g.- the royal army defeated the parliamentary detachment at Edgehill.

1643 g.- Parliament has concluded an alliance agreement with Scotland.

1644 g.- Battle of the Marston Wasteland. The first victory of the troops of parliament.

1645 g.- the creation in England of a new type of army, mainly consisting of volunteers (peasants, artisans, etc.). For the first time people of common origin became officers.

1645 g.- the battle at Naseby. The victory of the parliamentary forces. Charles fled to the Scots, who later gave him away for a ransom.

May 1649- England is proclaimed a republic. Legislative power was transferred to a unicameral parliament (House of Commons), and executive power to the State Council (it included 41 people, these were mainly the military, headed by Oliver Cromwell).

1707 g.- Parliament legalized the union between England and Scotland. Since that time, Scotland has sent its deputies to the English Parliament. The single state was named Great Britain or the United Kingdom.

Participants

James I Stuart - King of England, son of Mary Stuart, ruled from 1603 to 1625.

Charles I Stuart - King of England, son of James I, ruled from 1625 to 1649.

On May 19, 1649, the parliament declared England a republic. The House of Lords was abolished, the Council of State was created, composed of the leadership of the army and the leaders of the Independents. Formally, he was subordinate to the House of Commons, but in fact the military dictatorship of Cromwell was established, who in 1653 was proclaimed Lord Protector (Defender) of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Oliver Cromwell could not allow a weakening of the role of England in Europe and the world. In the years 1649-1651. the English army brutally suppressed the uprising in Ireland, all of its territory was annexed to England, then Cromwell's troops occupied Scotland. Parliament adopted the Navigation Act - now goods could be imported into the country only on British ships. This document was beneficial to the British bourgeoisie and was aimed against Holland, the main political and commercial rival of England. England won a victory in the outbreak of the Anglo-Dutch war.

In 1658, Oliver Cromwell died, and unrest broke out in the country. The country needed a strong power. Then the newly elected bicameral parliament invited Charles II, the son of the executed monarch, to the royal throne in 1660. The new king promised to observe religious tolerance and respect for property rights. However, Charles II began to break his promises. And when, after the death of Charles II (1685), his brother Jacob II became king, the feudal lords tried to return the country to the absolutist order, Jacob himself maintained ties with the Catholic Church and began persecuting the opposition. Then the English parliament stripped him of the crown and transferred the throne to William III of Orange, who was married to the daughter of Jacob II. Upon accession to the throne, William III signed the Bill of Rights, according to which the king could not repeal laws issued by parliament, impose taxes and collect an army. The events of 1688 were named in the history of England "Glorious revolution")

Homework

1. How did the "new model" army differ from the cavalier army?

2. What political trends took shape during the English Revolution? What strata interests did they express?

3. What are the main results of the civil war?

4. What events in English history have been called the "Glorious Revolution"? Why?

5. What are the main results of the British bourgeois revolution?