Blood. Why do you need blood to man and from which components it consists of uniform elements of blood and their

In order for the body optimally functioned, all components and organs should be in a certain proportion. Blood is one of the types of fabrics with a characteristic composition. Constantly moving, the blood carries out the mass of the most important functions for the body, and also transfers the blood circulation system and elements.

What components consist of?

If we talk briefly about the composition of the blood, plasma and the cells included in it are defining substances. Plasma is a light liquid that makes up about 50% of blood volume. The plasma devoid of fibrinogen is called serum.

In the blood there are shaped elements of three types:

• Erythrocytes - Red cells. The red blood cells were obtained at the expense of hemoglobin, contained in them. The amount of hemoglobin of peripheral blood is approximately 130 - 160 g / l (husband.) And 120 - 140 g / l (wives);
• - white cells;
• - Blood plates.

For arterial blood, a bright scarlet color is characteristic. Penetrated from the lungs in the heart, the blood blood propagates by the organs enriching them with oxygen, and then returns to the heart on the veins. With a lack of oxygen, blood darkens.

The blood circuit system of the adult contains 4 - 5 liters of blood, 55% of which is plasma, and 45% - on uniform elements, and the erythrocytes represent the majority (approximately 90%).

Blood viscosity is proportional to proteins and erythrocytes contained in it, and their quality affects blood pressure indicators. Blood cells are moved by either groups or one by one. Erythrocytes have the opportunity to move apart or "flocks", forming a stream in the central part of the vessel. Leukocytes are usually moving one by one, sticking the walls.

Blood function

This liquid connecting fabric consisting of different elements is carried out by the most important mission:

1. Protective function. Leukocytes occupy the palm of championship, protecting the human body from infection, focusing in a damaged part of the body. Their appointment is a merger with microorganisms (phagocytosis). While leukocytes contribute to the elimination of modified and dead tissues from the body. Lymphocytes produce antibodies from dangerous agents.
2. Transportation function. Blood supply affects actually all the processes of the functioning of the body.

Blood facilitates moving:

• Oxygen from the lungs to the tissues;
• Carbon dioxide from tissue to easy;
• Organic substances from the intestines to cells;
• End products derived by the kidneys;
• Hormones;
• Other active substances.

Moving oxygen to fabrics

1. Temperature balance control. Blood needs people to maintain body temperature within 36. 4 ° - 37 ° C.

What does blood consist of?

Plasma

Blood is a light yellow plasma. Its color can be explained by the low content of gall pigment and other particles.

What is the composition of the plasma? About 90% of the plasma consists of water, and the remaining 10% belong to dissolved organic elements and minerals.

Plasma includes such soluble substances:

• Organic - consist of glucose (0. 1%) and proteins (approximately 7%);
• Fats, amino acids, dairy and uric acids, etc. Approximately 2% of the plasma;
• Minerals - up to 1%.

It should be remembered: the composition of the blood varies depending on the used products and therefore is a non-permanent value.

The blood volume is:

If a person is in a calm state, the bloodstream becomes much lower, since blood partially remains in Vienuls and liver veins, spleen, lungs.

Blood volume remains relatively stable in the body. The rapid loss of 25 - 50% of blood is able to provoke the death of the body - which is why in such cases doctors resort to emergency transfusions.

The plasma proteins take intotensively participate in water exchange. Antibodies form a certain percentage of proteins, neutralizing alien elements.

Fibrinogen (soluble protein) affects blood clotting and transformed into fibrin, unable to dissolve. In plasma there are hormones, producing glands of internal secretion and other bioactive elements, very necessary for the body.

Erythrocytes

The most multiple cells constituting 44% are 48% of blood volume. The red blood cells received its name from the Greek word "red".

Such a color was provided to them the most complicated hemoglobin, which has the ability to interact with oxygen. In hemoglobin there is a protein and non-leisure parts.

The protein part contains iron, due to which hemoglobin joins molecular oxygen.

In structure, red blood cells resemble twice concave in the middle disks with a diameter of 7. 5 microns. Due to such a structure, effective processes are ensured, and due to concavity, the plane of the erythrocyte increases - all this is necessary for gas exchange. In the mature cells of erythrocyte nuclei. Transportation of oxygen from the lungs in fabric is the main mission of red blood cells.

Erythrocytes are produced by the bone marrow.

Fully matured in 5 days, the red blood cell works fruitfully approximately 4 months. Erythrocytes fall into the spleen and liver, and hemoglobin is split into Globin and Gem.

So far, science is not able to accurately answer the question: what transformations then grobin undergoes, but iron ions released from the heme, red blood cells are produced. Transforming into Bilirubin (Horse Pigment), Gym falls on the gastrointestinal tract. Insufficient number of erythrocytes provokes anemia.

Colorless cells that protect the body from infection and painful reversing cells. White calves are grainy (granulocytes) and injectable (agranulocytes).

Granulocytes include:

• Neutrophils;
• Basophiles;
• Eosinophils.

Different with response to various dyes.

To agranulocytes:

• Monocytes;

Granular leukocytes have a granule in a cytoplasm and a kernel with several sections. The agranulocytes are non-trim, include a rounded core.

Granulocytes are produced by the bone marrow. The ripening of granulocytes is evidenced by their grainy structure and the presence of segments.

Granulocytes penetrate the blood, moving through the walls of the amoeboid movements. Can leave vessels and focus in foci of infection.

Monocytes.

Perform the role of phagocytosis. These are more voluminous cells that are formed in the bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen.

Smaller cells divided into 3 types (B-, 0-, and T). Each type of cells are performed a specific function:

• Antibodies are generated;
• Interferons;
• Macrophages are activated;
• Oncological cells are eliminated.

Transparent plates of small sized nuclei. These are particles of megakaryocyte cells focused in the bone marrow.

Platelets can be:

• Oval;
• Spherical;
• Rod.

They function up to 10 days, fulfilling an important function in the body - participation in blood clotting.

Plateles are distinguished by substances that are involved in reactions launched during blood vessel damage.

That is why fibrinogen is transformed into fibrin threads where clomes can form.

What are the functional disturbances of platelets? The peripheral blood of an adult must contain 180 - 320 x 109 / l. Daily fluctuations are observed: during the daytime, the number of platelets increases with respect to the night. Their reduction in the body is called thrombocytopenia, and increases with thrombocytosis.

Thrombocytopenia are in cases:

1. The bone marrow produces few platelets, or if platelets are subjected to rapid destruction.

A negative impact on the production of blood plates can be provided:

1. During thrombocytopenia, there is a predisposition to the emergence of light bruises (hematoma), which are formed after the minimum pressing on the skin or at all unfortunately.
2. Bleeding during minor injuries or surgical intervention.
3. Significant blood loss in the period of menstruation.

If there is at least one of the listed symptoms, there is a reason to immediately turn to the doctor.

Thrombocytosis causes the opposite effect: the increase in platelets provokes the formation of blood clots (thromboms), blocking blood flows. This is rather unsafe, since it is able to provoke a heart attack, stroke or thrombophlebitis limbs (usually lower).

In certain cases, platelets, even with their normal quantities, are unable to function fully and therefore provoke enhanced bleeding. Such pathology of platelet functions are congenital and acquired. The same group includes pathologies that were provoked by the long-term use of medical preparations: for example, unreasonably frequent reception of painful medicines containing analgin.

Short outcome

In the composition of the blood, there is liquid plasma and uniform elements - weighted cells. The timely detection of the changed percentage ratio of blood composition is provided to identify the disease at the initial period.

Video - from what the blood consists

Blood function.

Blood is a liquid fabric consisting of plasma and weighted blood cells. Blood circulation on a closed CSS is a prerequisite for maintaining the constancy of its composition. Stopping the heart and stopping the blood movement immediately leads the body to death. The doctrine of blood and its diseases is called hematology.

Physiological blood functions:

1. Respiratory - transfer of oxygen from light to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to light.

2. Trophic (nutritious) - delivers nutrients, vitamins, mineral salts, water from digestive organs to tissues.

3. Excretory (excretory) - separation of finite products of decomposition, excess water and mineral salts.

4. Thermoregulatory - regulation of body temperature by cooling energy-intensive organs and warming organs losing heat.

5. Homeostatic - maintaining the stability of a number of gomeostasis constants (pH, osmotic pressure, isoionia).

6. Regulation of the water and salt metabolism between blood and tissues.

7. Protective - participation in cellular (leukocytes) and humoral (AT) immunite, in the process of completion for cessation of bleeding.

8. Humoral - transfer of hormones.

9. Creator (creative) is the transfer of macromolecules that carry out the intercellular transmission of information in order to restore and maintain the structure of body tissues.

The number and physico-chemical properties of blood.

The total amount of blood in the body of an adult is normal is 6-8% of body weight and is approximately 4.5-6 liters. The blood consists of a liquid part - plasma and blood cells weighted in it - uniform elements: red (erythrocytes), white (leukocytes) and blood plates (platelets). In circulating blood, uniform elements are 40-45%, the plasma is 55-60%. In deposited blood, on the contrary: shaped elements - 55-60%, plasma - 40-45%.

The viscosity of solid blood is about 5, and the viscosity of the plasma is 1.7-2.2 (with respect to the viscosity of water, equal to 1). Blood viscosity is due to the presence of proteins and especially erythrocytes.

Osmotic pressure is a pressure that is dissolved in the plasma substance. It depends mainly on the mineral salts contained in it and is an average of 7.6 atm., Which corresponds to the temperature of the freezing of blood, equal to -0.56 - -0.58 ° C. About 60% of all osmotic pressure is caused by Na salts.

The oncotic blood pressure is the pressure generated by plasma proteins (that is, their ability to attract and hold water). Determined by more than 80% of albumin.

The blood reaction is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions, which is expressed by a hydrogen indicator - PN.

In the neutral medium PN \u003d 7.0

In acid - less than 7.0.

In alkaline - more than 7.0.

Blood has a PN - 7.36, i.e. Her reaction is weakly alkaline. Life is possible in the narrow limits of the bias of the PN from 7.0 to 7.8 (because only under these conditions, enzymes can work - catalysts of all biochemical reactions).

Plasma blood.

The blood plasma is a complex mixture of proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, salts, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, dissolved gases and protein decay products (urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia) to be removed from the body. Plasma contains 90-92% water and 8-10% dry residue, mainly proteins and mineral salts. Plasma has a weakly alkaline reaction (PN \u003d 7.36).

Plasma proteins (more than 30) include 3 main groups:

· Globulins provide vehicles, lipoids, glucose, copper, iron, antibody production, as well as α- and β-agglutinins of blood.

· Albumin provides oncotic pressure, drug substances, vitamins, hormones, pigments are associated.

· Fibrinogen is involved in blood turning.

Forming blood elements.

Erythrocytes (from Greek. Erytros - Red, Cytus - Cell) - Non-free uniform blood elements containing hemoglobin. They have the shape of two-screwed disks with a diameter of 7-8 microns, 2 microns thick. They are very flexible and elastic, easily deformed and pass through blood capillaries with a diameter of less than the diameter of the erythrocyte. The lifespan of erythrocytes is 100-120 days.

In the initial phases of its development, red blood cells have a kernel and are called reticulocytes. As the core ripens is replaced by a respiratory pigment - hemoglobin, which makes up 90% of the erythrocyte dry matter.

Normally in 1 μl (1 cubic meters) of blood in men contains 4-5 million red blood cells, in women - 3.7-4.7 million, the newborn, the number of red blood cells reaches 6 million. Increase in the number of blood erythrocytes It is called erythrocytosis, decrease - erythroenia. Hemoglobin is the main part of the erythrocytes, provides a respiratory function of blood due to the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the regulation of blood pH, possessing the properties of weak acids.

Normally, men contain 145 g / l of hemoglobin (with oscillations of 130-160 g / l), in women - 130 g / l (120-140 g / l). The total number of hemoglobin in five liters of blood in humans is 700-800.

Leukocytes (from Greek. Leukos - White, Cytus - Cell) - Colorless nuclear cells. Leukocyte size - 8-20 microns. Food in red bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen. In 1 μl of human blood, 4-9 thousand leukocytes are in normal. The amounts of them fluctuate during the day, is reduced in the morning, increases after eating (digestive leukocytosis), increases during muscular work, strong emotions.

An increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood is called leukocytosis, a decrease in leukopenia.

The life expectancy of leukocytes is an average of 15-20 days, lymphocytes - 20 or more years. Some lymphocytes live throughout the human life.

According to the presence in the cytoplasm, leukocytes are divided into 2 groups: grain (granulocytes) and non-unintended (agranulocytes).

The granulocyte group includes neutrophils, eosinophils and basophiles. Have a large number of granules in the cytoplasm, where the enzymes needed to digest foreign substances are contained. The nuclei of all granulocytes is divided into 2-5 parts interconnected by the threads, so they are also called segmented leukocytes. Young forms of neutrophils with kernels in the form of chopsticks are called harsher neutrophils, and in the form of an oval - young.

Lymphocytes are the smallest of leukocytes, have a large rounded core, surrounded by a narrow rim of the cytoplasm.

Monocytes are large agranulocytes, have a kernel in the form of an oval or bob.

The percentage ratio of certain types of leukocytes in the blood is called a leukocyte formula, or a leukegram:

· Eosinophils 1 - 4%

· Basophiles 0.5%

· Neutrophils 60 - 70%

· Lymphocytes 25 - 30%

· Monocytes 6 - 8%

In healthy people, the leukogram is quite constant, and its changes serve as a sign of various diseases. For example, with acute inflammatory processes, an increase in the number of neutrophils (neutrophilia) is observed, with allergic diseases and a melted disease - an increase in the number of eosinophils (eosinophilia), with sluggish chronic infections (tuberculosis, rheumatism, etc.) is the number of lymphocytes (lymphocytosis).

In neutrophilas, you can define half a person. In the presence of a female genotype 7 of 500 neutrophils contain special, specific for female formation, called "drum chopsticks" (round growths with a diameter of 1.5-2 microns, connected to one of the kernel segments by means of thin chromatin bridges).

Leukocytes perform many features:

1. Protective - Fighting alien agents (they are phagocytic (absorb) alien bodies and destroy them).

2. Antitoxic - production of antitoxins, neutralizing the products of microbes of microbes.

3. Development of antibodies providing immunity, i.e. Infectedness to infections and genetically alien substances.

4. Participate in the development of all stages of inflammation, stimulate regenerative (regenerative) processes in the body and accelerate wound healing.

5. Provide the reaction of the transplant rejection and the destruction of their own mutant cells.

6. Form active (endogenous) pyrogens and form a feverish reaction.

Platelets, or blood plates (Greek. ThromBOS - blood clot, CYTUS cell) are rounded or oval nuclear-free formations with a diameter of 2-5 microns (3 times less erythrocytes). The platelets are formed in a red bone marrow from giant cells - megakaryocytes. In 1 μl of blood, a person in the norm contains 180-300 thousand platelets. A significant part of them is deposited in the spleen, liver, lungs, if necessary, enters the blood. An increase in the number of platelets in peripheral blood is called thrombocytosis, a decrease in thrombocytopenia. The lifespan of platelets is 2-10 days.

Plates of platelets:

1. Participate in the process of blood clotting and dissolving blood clots (fibrinolysis).

2. Participate in the bleeding stop (hemostasis) due to the biologically active compounds present in them.

3. Perform a protective function by gluing (agglutination) of microbes and phagocytosis.

4. We produce some enzymes needed for normal platelet life and for the bleeding stop process.

5. Carriage of creators are carried out, important to preserve the structure of the vascular wall (without interacting with platelets of the endothelium vessels, dystrophy is exposed and begins to pass through the erythrocytes).

Cutting blood system. Blood groups. Resh factor. Hemostasis and its mechanisms.

Hemostasis (Greek HAIME - Blood, Stasis - a fixed state) is a stop of blood flow through a blood vessel, i.e. Stop bleeding. Two bleeding mechanisms are distinguished:

1. Visor-thrombocitantary hemostasis is able to stop bleeding from the most commonly injured small blood pressure on themselves in a few minutes. It is composed of two processes:

Vascular spasm, leading to a temporary stop or decrease in bleeding;

Education, seals and reduction of platelet cork leading to a complete cessation of bleeding.

2. Coagulative hemostasis (blood turning) ensures the cessation of bloodstures during damage to large vessels. Blood cowing is a protective reaction of the body. When the blood is injected and leakage from the blood vessels, it goes out of the liquid state into the jelly-like. The forming clutch clogs damaged vessels and prevents the loss of a significant amount of blood.

The concept of the Rh Factor.

In addition to AVO Systems (Landshineer Systems), there is a rhesus system, since in addition to the main agglutinogen A and B, there may be other additional, in particular, the so-called rhesus-agglutinogen in the erythrocytes (reserves-factor). For the first time, it was discovered in 1940 by K. Landstyner and I. Winner in the blood monkey monkey-resusa.

85% of people have a ray factor in the blood. Such blood is called Rus-positive. Blood in which the Rus-factor is absent, called Resh-negative. A feature of the ray factor is that people have no anti -usus agglutinins.

Blood groups.

Blood Groups - a set of features characterizing the antigenic structure of erythrocytes and the specificity of anti-raspiel antibodies that are taken into account when selecting blood for transfusions (from lat. Transfusio - transfusion).

According to those or other agglutinogen and agglutinins, the blood of people are divided into 4 groups according to the Landshtiner AVO system.

Immunity, its views.

Immunity (from Lat. Imunitas - exemption from anything, deliverance) is the immunity of the body to causative agents or poisons, as well as the body's ability to defend against genetically alien bodies and substances.

In terms of the method of origin distinguish congenital and acquired immunity.

Congenital (species) immunity It is a hereditary sign for this type of animal (dogs and rabbits are not painful with polio).

Acquired immunity It is purchased in the course of life and is divided into naturally acquired and artificially acquired. Each of them in the way of occurrence is divided into active and passive.

Naturally acquired active immunity occurs after the transfer of the relevant infectious disease.

Naturally acquired passive immunity is due to the transition of protective antibodies from the blood of the mother through the placenta in the blood of the fetus. This will receive immunity newborn children in relation to measles, scarletines, diphtheria and other infections. After 1-2 years, when antibodies derived from the mother are destroyed and partially stand out from the child's body, its susceptibility to the specified infections increases sharply. Passive by immunity to a lesser extent can be transmitted to Mother's milk.

Artificially acquired immunity is reproduced by a person in order to prevent infectious diseases.

Active artificial immunity is achieved by vaccinating healthy people of crops of dead or weakened pathogenic microbes, weakened toxins or viruses. For the first time, artificial active immunization was performed by Jenner by vaccinating cow's sieves to children. This procedure pasteur was called vaccination, and the vaccination material - vaccine (from lat. Vacca - cow).

Passive artificial immunity is reproduced by the introduction of a man of serum containing finished antibodies against microbes and their toxins. Antitoxic serums against diphtheria, tetanus, gas gangrene, botulism, snake poisons (Cobra, Vijuk, etc.) are especially effective. These serums are mainly obtained from horses that are immunized by the appropriate toxin.

Depending on the direction of action, antitoxic, antimicrobial and antiviral immunity are also distinguished.

Antitoxic immunity directed to neutralizing microbial poisons, the leading role with it belongs to antitoxins.

Antimicrobial (antibacterial) is immune directated to the destruction of microbial bodies. A large role with it belongs to antibodies and phagocytes.

Antiviral immunityProws the formation of a special protein in the cells of a lymphoid series - interferon, overwhelming virus reproduction

Blood is a liquid body tissue, continuously moving along the blood vessels, washing and moisturizing all tissues and organism systems. It is 6-8% of the entire body mass (5 liters). Blood in the human body performs at least seven different functions, but all of them combines one - transportation of gases and other substances. First, it transfers oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and carbon dioxide formed during the metabolism process, from the tissues to the easy. Secondly, it transports all nutrients from the digestive tract to organs or in drives (in the "pillow" of adipose tissue).

Blood performs an excretory function, as it transfers to be removed to remove the metabolic products to the organs of the excretory system. In addition, it participates in maintaining the constancy of the composition of the liquids of various cells and organs, and also regulates the temperature of the human body. It delivers hormones - chemical "letters" from the glands of the internal secretion to the authorities remote from them. Finally, blood plays a large role in the immune system, as it protects the body from the diseases penetrating into it and harmful substances.

Structure

Blood consists of plasma (approximately 55%) and uniform elements (about 45%). Its viscosity is higher than water 4-5 times. Plasma contains 90% water, and the remaining part is proteins, fats, carbohydrates and minerals. In the blood there should be a certain amount of each of these substances. Liquid plasma transfers various cells. Three main groups of these cells: erythrocytes (red blood tales), leukocytes (white blood tales) and platelets (blood plates).

Most of the blood of red blood cells that give it a characteristic red color. Men in 1 mm cubic meters. Blood has 5 million red blood cells, and women are only 4.5 million. These cells provide the circulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide between light and other body bodies. In this process, the "chemical vessel" becomes red blood pigment - hemoglobin. Erythrocytes live about 120 days. Therefore, in one second, about 2.4 million new cells should be formed in the bone marrow - this ensures a constant number of erythrocytes circulating in the blood.

Leukocytes

In a healthy person in 1 mm cubic meter. Contains 4500-8000 leukocytes. After meals, their number may be much. Leukocytes "recognize" and destroy the pathogens of diseases and alien substances. If the leukocyte content increased, this may mean the presence of an infectious disease or inflammation. The third cell group is small and quickly disintegrating platelets. In 1 mm 3, blood is available 0.15-0.3 million platelets, which play an important role in the process of its coagulation: platelets are blocked by damaged vessels preventing a large blood loss.

general information

• Blood cancer (leukemia) is an uncontrolled increase in the number of leukocytes. They are produced in pathologically changed bone marrow cells, so they cease to perform their functions, which entails the human immunity disorder.
• Calcification of blood vessels leads to a rapid formation of thromboms that can cause a myocardial infarction, stroke or lung embolism if the blood vessel is closed by one of these organs.
• In the body of an adult, it circulates about 5-6 liters of blood. If a person suddenly loses 1 liter of blood, for example, as a result of an accident, there is nothing terrible in it. Therefore, donation and does not harm (the donor takes 0.5 liters of blood).

(blood plates). In an adult, uniform blood elements are about 40-48%, and the plasma is 52-60%.

Blood is a liquid tissue. It has a red color that erythrocytes (red blood tales) attach it. The implementation of basic blood functions is ensured by maintaining the optimal volume of plasma, a certain level of cell elements (Fig. 1) and various plasma components.

Plasma, devoid of fibrinogen, is called serum.

Fig. 1. Uniform blood elements: a - cattle; b - chicken; 1 - red blood cells; 2, b - eosinophilic granulocytes; 3,8,11 - lymphocytes: medium, small, large; 4 - Blood plates; 5.9 - neutrophilic granulocytes: segmented (mature), rod (young); 7 - basophil granulocyte; 10 - monocyte; 12 - erythrocyte core; 13 - end-in-lawy leukocytes; 14 - Granular leukocytes

Everything forming elements of blood -, and - are formed in the red bone marrow. Despite the fact that all blood cells are descendants of a single hematopoietic cell - fibroblasts, they perform various specific functions, at the same time the generality of origin has belonging to them and common properties. So, all blood cells, regardless of their specifics, participate in the transport of various substances, perform protective and regulatory functions.

Fig. 2. Blood composition

Erythrocytes in men 4.0 - 5.0x 10 12 / l, in women 3.9-4.7x 10 12 / l; leukocytes 4.0-9.0x 10 9 / l; platelets 180-320x 10 9 / l.

Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, for the first time Malpigi in the blood of a frog (1661) were discovered, and Levenguk (1673) showed that they are also present in the blood of man and mammals.

- Non-surfactant red blood cells in two-way discs. Thanks to this form and elasticity of the cytoskeleton, the erythrocytes can transport a large number of different substances and penetrate the narrow capillaries.

Erythrocyte consists of a stroma and semi-permeable shell.

The main part of the erythrocytes (up to 95% of the mass) is hemoglobin, giving blood red and consisting of globin protein and iron-containing heme. The main function of hemoglobin and erythrocytes is the transfer of oxygen (0 2) and carbon dioxide (C0 2).

In the blood of a person contains about 25 trillion of red blood cells. If all the erythrocytes next to each other next to each other, then the chain is about 200 thousand km long, which can be gone to the Equator's globe 5 times. If we put all the erythrocytes of one person one on another, then the "column" is a height of more than 60 km.

Erythrocytes have a two-way disk shape, dumbbells resemble dumbbells during transverse cut. This form not only increases the surface of the cell, but also contributes to a faster and uniform diffusion of gases through the cell membrane. If they had the shape of the ball, the distance from the center of the cell to the surface increased by 3 times, and the total area of \u200b\u200bthe red blood cells would be 20% less. Erythrocytes are distinguished by great elasticity. They easily pass on capillaries having twice smaller diameter than the cell itself. The overall surface of all erythrocytes reaches 3000 m 2, which is 1500 times the surface of the human body. Such surface and volume ratios contribute to the optimal performance of the main function of the erythrocytes - the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body.

Unlike other representatives of the type of chordic erythrocytes of mammals are nuclear cells. The loss of the nucleus led to an increase in the number of respiratory enzyme - hemoglobin. An aqueous erythrocyte is about 400 million hemoglobin molecules. The deprivation of the nucleus led to the fact that the Erythrocyte himself consumes 200 times less oxygen than its nuclear representatives (erythroblasts and normoblasts).

In the blood of men contains an average of 5. 10 12 / l erythrocytes (5,000,000 in 1 μl), in women - about 4.5. 10 12 / l erythrocytes (4,500,000 in 1 μl).

Normally, the number of erythrocytes is subject to insignificant oscillations. With different diseases, the number of erythrocytes can decrease. Such a state is called Erytropenia And often accompanies anemia or anemia. An increase in the number of erythrocytes is called Erythrocytosis.

Hemolysis and its causes

Hemolysis is called the rupture of the erythrocyte shell and a plasma exit, so that the blood acquires a lacquer shade. In artificial conditions, the hemolysis of red blood cells can be caused by the placing them in the hypotonic solution - Osmotic hemolysis. For healthy people, the minimum border of osmotic resistance corresponds to a solution containing 0.42-0.48% NaCl, the total hemolysis (the maximum durability boundary) occurs at a concentration of 0.30-0.34% NaCl.

Hemolysis can be caused by chemical agents (chloroform, ether, etc.), destroying the erythrocyte membrane, - Chemical hemolysis. Often occurs hemolysis in poisoning with acetic acid. Hemolyasing property possess the poisons of some snakes - biological hemolysis.

With a strong shaking, the ampoules with blood is also observed the destruction of the erythrocyte membrane -Mukhanic hemolysis. It can manifest itself in patients with prosthetics of the valve apparatus of the heart and blood vessels, and sometimes occurs when walking (marching hemoglobinuria) due to injury to erythrocytes in stop capillaries.

If the red blood cells to freeze, and then heat, then hemolysis arises, which received the name thermal. Finally, when overflowing incompatible blood and the presence of autoantibodes to red blood cells is developing Immune hemolysis. The latter is the cause of anemia and is often accompanied by the release of hemoglobin and its derivatives with urine (hemoglobinuria).

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (EE)

If the blood is placed in a test tube, having previously adding substances in it that prevents coagulation, then after some time the blood is divided into two layers: the upper consists of plasma, and the bottom is the shaped elements, mainly red blood cells. Based on these properties.

Farreus proposed to study the suspension stability of erythrocytes, determining the speed of their sediment in the blood, the coagulation of which was eliminated by the preliminary addition of sodium citrate. This indicator was called "The Speeding Speed \u200b\u200bof the Erythrocyte (ESO)" or "The reaction of the settlement of erythrocytes (ROO).

The value of SE depends on age and gender. Normally, in men, this indicator is 6-12 mm per hour, in women - 8-15 mm per hour, in older people of both sexes - 15-20 mm per hour.

The content of fibrinogen and globulin proteins has the greatest effect on the value of the SE: with an increase in their concentration of ESP increases, since the electrical charge of the cell membrane decreases and they are easier "glued together" with the type of coin columns. EE increases dramatically during pregnancy, when the fibrinogen content in the plasma increases. This is a physiological increase; It is assumed that it ensures the protective function of the body during the tooling of the fetus. Education of ESP is observed in inflammatory, infectious and oncological diseases, as well as with a significant decrease in the number of erythrocytes (anemia). The decrease in ETE in adults and children over 1 year old is an unfavorable sign.

Leukocytes

- White blood cells. They contain the kernel, do not have a constant shape, have amoeboid mobility and secretory activity.

In animals, the content of leukocytes in the blood is about 1000 times less than the red blood cells. In 1 liter of cattle, cattle is approximately (6-10). 10 9 leukocytes, walkers - (7-12) -10 9, pigs - (8-16) -10 9 leukocytes. The number of leukocytes in vivo varies in large limits and can increase after feeding feed, heavy muscle work, with strong irritations, pain and others. An increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood is called leukocytosis, but a decrease in leukopenia.

There are several types of leukocytes depending on the size, the presence or absence of granularity in the protoplasm, the shape of the kernel, etc., the presence in the cytoplasm of the granularity of the leukocytes is divided into granulocytes (grainy) and agranulocytes (inexistible).

Granulocytes They constitute most of the leukocytes, and they include neutrophils (painted with acidic and main dyes), eosinophils (painted with acidic dyes) and bazzophiles (painted with the main dyes).

Neitrofyls Capable to amoeboid movement, pass through the endothelium capillaries, are actively moving to the place of damage or inflammation. They phagocyse live and dead microorganisms, and then digest them with enzymes. Neutrophils secrete lysosomal proteins and produce interferon.

Eosinophila Disposal and destroy toxins of protein origin, alien proteins, antigen complexes - antibody. They produce enzyme histamine, absorb and destroy histamine. Their number increases with different toxins into the body.

Basophiles Take part in allergic reactions, highlighting after a meeting with an allergen heparin and histamine, which impede blood coagulation, expand capillaries and contribute to resorption during inflammation. Their number increases with injuries and inflammatory processes.

Agranulocytes are divided into monocytes and lymphocytes.

Monocytes. They have a pronounced phagocytic and bactericidal activity in an acidic environment. Participate in the formation of an immune response. Their number increases with inflammatory processes.

Carry out the reactions of cellular and humoral immunity. Can penetrate the tissue and return back to the blood, live for several years. They are responsible for the formation of specific immunity and carry out immune oversight in the body, retain the genetic constancy of the inner medium. There are specific sections of lymphocytes on the plasma membrane - receptors, so that they are activated when contacting alien microorganisms and proteins. They synthesize protective antibodies, lying alien cells, ensure the reaction of the transplant rejection and the immune memory of the body. Their number increases with microorganisms penetration into the body. Unlike other leukocytes, the lymphocytes ripen in the red bone marrow, but in the future they pass differentiation in lymphoid organs and tissues. Part of the lymphocytes is differentiated in the thymus (fork iron) and therefore they are called T-lymphocytes.

T-lymphocytes are formed in the bone marrow, they do and pass differentiation in the thymus, and then they are spread to lymph nodes, a spleen and circulated in the blood. There are several forms of T-lymphocytes: T-helpers (helpers) that interact with in lymphocytes, turning them into plasma cells, synthesizing antibodies and gamma globulines; T-suppressors (oppressors) depressing excessive reactions of in-lymphocyte and supporting a certain ratio of different forms of lymphocytes, and T-killsra (killers), which interact with alien cells and destroy them by forming the reaction of cellular immunity.

B-lymphocytes are formed in the bone marrow, but in mammals undergo differentiation in the lymphoid tissue of the intestines, roaming and sipboard almonds. When meeting with an antigen in lymphocytes, they are activated, migrate to the spleen, lymph nodes, where they multiply and transformed into plasma cells producing antibodies and gamma globulines.

Zero lymphocytes do not pass differentiation in the organs of the immune system, but if necessary, it is capable of transforming into V- and T-lymphocytes.

The number of lymphocytes increases in the penetration of microorganisms into the body.

The percentage of individual forms of blood leukocytes is called leukocyte formula, or Leikogram.

Maintaining the constancy of the leukocyte formula for peripheral blood is carried out due to the interaction of continuously occurring ripening processes and the destruction of leukocytes.

The life of leukocytes of different types is from several hours to several days, with the exception of lymphocytes, some of which lives for several years.

Thrombocytes

- Small blood plates. After education in the red bone marrow, they fall into the bloodstream. Platmetes have mobility, phagocytic activity, are involved in immune reactions. Draising, platelets allocate the components of the blood coagulation system, are involved in blood clotting, the retraction of the bunch and lysis of the fibrin-generated. They also regulate an angiotropophy function due to the growth factor in them. Under the influence of this factor, the proliferation of endothelial and smooth muscle cells of blood vessels is enhanced. Platelets have the ability to adhesion (adhesion) and aggregation (the ability to glue with each other).

Platmetes are formed and developed in the Red Bone Mody. The duration of their life is an average of 8 days, and then they are destroyed in the spleen. The number of these cells increases with injuries and damage to the vessels.

In 1 liter of blood, the horse is contained up to 500. 10 9 platelets, cattle - 600. 10 9, in pigs - 300. 10 9 platelets.

Blood constants

Basic blood constants

Blood as a liquid body fabric is characterized by a variety of constants that can be divided into soft and hard.

Soft (plastic) constants can change their value from a constant level widely without significant changes in the vital activity of cells and the functions of the body. The soft constants of blood include: the amount of circulating blood, the ratio of plasma volumes and uniform elements, the number of shaped elements, the amount of hemoglobin, the rate of sedimentation of the erythrocytes, blood viscosity, the relative density of blood, etc.

The amount of blood circulating by vessels

The total amount of blood in the body is 6-8% of the body weight (4-6 liters), of which about half of them circulates about half, another half - 45-50% is in the depot (in the liver - 20%, in the spleen - - 16%, in the skin vessels - 10%).

The ratio of blood plasma volumes and uniform elements is determined by centrifuging blood in the hematocrit analyzer. Under normal conditions, this ratio is 45% of uniform elements and 55% of the plasma. This magnitude in a healthy person can undergo significant and long-term changes only when adapting to large altitudes. Liquid blood (plasma), devoid of fibrinogen, is called serum.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

In men -2-10 mm / h, women - 2-15 mm / h. The rate of sedimentation of erythrocytes depends on many factors: the number of erythrocytes, their morphological features, charge values, the ability to agglomeration (aggregation), the protein composition of the plasma. At the rate of sedimentation of red blood cells affects the physiological state of the body. For example, during pregnancy, inflammatory processes, emotional stresses and other states, the rate of sedimentation of red blood cells increases.

Blood viscosity

Due to the presence of proteins and red blood cells. The viscosity of solid blood is equal to 5, if the viscosity of the water is taken for 1, and plasma - 1.7-2.2.

Specific weight (relative density) of blood

Depends on the content of uniform elements, proteins and lipids. The proportion of solid blood is 1.050, plasma - 1.025-1.034.

Hard constants

Their oscillation is permissible in very small ranges, since the deviation to minor values \u200b\u200bleads to a violation of the vital activity of cells or functions of the whole body. The constant constants include the constancy of the ionic composition of the blood, the number of proteins in plasma, osmotic blood pressure, the amount of blood glucose, the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide blood, acid-base equilibrium.

Constancy of the ionic composition of blood

The total number of blood plasma inorganic substances is about 0.9%. These substances include: cations (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and anions (chlorine, HPO 4, HCO 3 -). The content of cations is a more rigid value than the content of the anions.

The number of proteins in the plasma

Protein functions:

• create oncotical blood pressure, from which the exchange of water between blood and intercellular fluid depends;
• blood viscosity is determined, which affects the hydrostatic blood pressure;
• take part in the process of coagulation of blood fibrinogen and globulins;
• the ratio of albumin and globulin affects the value of the ESP;
• are important components of the protective function of blood (gamma globulines);
• take part in the transport of the products of exchange, fats, hormones, vitamins, salts of heavy metals;
• are an indispensable reserve for constructing tissue proteins;
• participate in maintaining acid-base equilibrium, performing buffer functions.

The total number of plasma proteins is 7-8%. Plasma proteins differ in structure and functional properties. They are divided into three groups: albumin (4.5%), globulins (1.7-3.5%) and fibrinogen (0.2-0.4%).

Osmotic blood pressure

Under understand the strength with which the dissolved substance holds or attracts the solvent. This force caused by the movement of the solvent through a semi-permeable membrane of a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated.

Osmotic blood pressure is 7.6 atm. It depends on the content of salts and water in the blood plasma and ensures that it is maintained at the physiologically necessary level of the concentration of various substances dissolved in the body's liquid media. Osmotic pressure contributes to the distribution of water between tissues, cells and blood.

Solutions, osmotic pressure of which is equal to osmotic pressure pressure, are called isotonic, and they do not cause changes in the volume of cells. Solutions, the osmotic pressure of which above the osmotic pressure of the cells are called hypertonic. They cause beveling cells as a result of the transition of a part of water from cells into the solution. Solutions with lower osmotic pressure are called hypotonic. They cause an increase in cell volume as a result of the transition of water from a solution into a cell.

Minor changes in the salt composition of blood plasma may be destructive for the cells of the body and above all cells of the blood itself due to changes in osmotic pressure.

Part of the osmotic pressure generated by plasma proteins is an oncotic pressure, the value of which is 0.03-0.04 atm., Or 25-30 mm Hg. Oncotic pressure is a factor contributing to the transition of water from tissues into the bloodstream. With a decrease in the magnitude of the oncotic blood pressure of the blood, the water yield from the vessels in the interstitial space occurs and leads to a tissue edema.

The amount of glucose in the blood is normal - 3.3-5.5 mmol / l.

The content of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

Arterial blood contains 18-20 volumetric percent of oxygen and 50-52% by volume of carbon dioxide, in venous blood oxygen 12% by volume and carbon dioxide-55-58 vol.%.

pH blood

The active regulation of blood is due to the ratio of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions and is a tough constant. To estimate the active blood reaction, a hydrogen indicator is used equal to 7.36 (in arterial blood 7.4, in venous - 7.35). An increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions leads to a shear of the blood reaction in the acidic side, and is called acidosis. An increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions and an increase in the concentration of hydroxyl ions (it) leads to a reaction shift in the alkaline side, and is called alkalosis.

The holding of blood constants at a certain level is carried out according to the principle of self-regulation, which is achieved by the formation of relevant functional systems.

What is the composition of human blood? Blood is one of the body tissues, consisting of plasma (liquid part) and cell elements. Plasma is a homogeneous transparent or slightly turbid liquid having a yellow shade, which is an intercellular substance of blood tissues. The plasma consists of water in which substances (mineral and organic) are dissolved, including proteins (albumin, globulines and fibrinogen). Carbohydrates (glucose), fats (lipids), hormones, enzymes, vitamins, separate components of salts (ions) and some metabolic products.

Along with the plasma, the body displays the products of the exchange, various poisons and immune antigen-antibody complexes (which occur when foreign particles appear in the body as a protective reaction to remove them) and all unnecessary, interfering with the body.

Blood composition: blood cells

Cellular elements of blood are also heterogeneous. They consist of:

• erythrocytes (red blood tales);
• leukocytes (white blood taurus);
• platelets (blood plates).

Erythrocytes - Red Blood Taurus. Transport oxygen from the lungs to all human organs. It is the erythrocytes that contain iron-containing protein - bright red hemoglobin, which joins oxygen in the lungs from inhaled air, after which it gradually transfers it to all organs and tissues of various parts of the body.

Leukocytes - White Blood Taurus. They are responsible for immunity, i.e. For the ability of the human body to resist various viruses and infections. There are various types of leukocytes. Some of them are directed directly to the destruction of the bacteria or various alien cells penetrated into the body. Others are involved in the development of special molecules, so-called antibodies, which are also necessary to combat various infections.

Plates - blood plates. Help the body to stop bleeding, i.e. regulate blood coagulation. For example, if you damaged the blood vessel, then the blood clots will arise at the place of damage, after which the crust is formed, respectively, the bleeding will stop. Without platelets (and together with them a number of a number, the substance that is contained in the blood plasma) of the clots will not form, so any wound or nasal bleeding, for example, can lead to a large loss of blood.

Blood composition: norm

As we have already written above, there are red blood tales and white blood tales. So, in the norm of erythrocytes (red blood cells), men should have 4-5 * 1012 / l, in women 3.9-4.7 * 1012 / l. Leukocytes (white blood taurus) - 4-9 * 109 / l of blood. In addition, 1 μl of blood is 180-320 * 109 / l of blood plates (platelets). Normally, the cell volume is 35-45% of the total blood volume.

Chemical composition of human blood

Blood ishes every cell of the human body and each organ, so reacts to any changes in the body or lifestyle. Factors affecting the composition of the blood is quite diverse. Therefore, the doctor to correctly read the results of the tests must also be aware of the harmful habits and the physical activity of a person and even a diet. Even the environment and that affects the composition of the blood. Also on blood indicators affects everything that concerns metabolism. For example, you can consider how normal food intake changes blood indicators:

• Meal before analyzing blood increase the concentration of fats.
• Fasting for 2 days will increase bilirubin in the blood.
• Fasting for more than 4 days will reduce the amount of urea and fatty acids.
• Fatty food will increase the level of potassium and triglycerides.
• Excessive reception in meat will increase the level of urates.
• Coffee to increase glucose, fatty acids, leukocytes and red blood cells.

The blood of smokers is significantly different from the blood of people leading a healthy lifestyle. However, if you are conducting an active lifestyle, before surrendering blood analysis, you need to reduce the intensity of training. This is especially true of the surcharges for hormones. Influence the chemical composition of the blood and various drugs, so if you took something, be sure to inform your doctor about it.