Chapter VII New studies in all areas. Methods for determining radioactivity of drugs (relative, settlement, absolute) study of radioactivity of drugs

The basis of this method of examination is the ability of radioactive isotopes to radiation. Now most often conducting a computer radioisotope study - scintigraphy. Initially, the patient in Vienna, a radioactive substance is introduced into the mouth or inhalation. Most often compounds of short-lived isotope technetium with various organic substances are used.

Radiation from isotopes catches a gamma chamber, which is placed on the underlying authority. This radiation is converted and transmitted to the computer, the screen of the organ is displayed. Modern gamma chambers allow you to get and its layers "sections". It turns out the color picture, which is understandable to even non-professional. The study is carried out within 10-30 minutes, and all this time the image on the screen changes. Therefore, the doctor has the opportunity to see not only the body itself, but also to observe his work.

All other isotopic studies are gradually displaced by scintigraphy. So, scanning, which before the appearance of computers was the main method of radioisotope diagnostics, today is applied less and less. When scanning an image of the organ is not displayed on a computer, but on paper in the form of colored shaded lines. But with this method, the image is obtained flat and also gives little information about the operation of the organ. Yes, and the sick scanness delivers certain inconvenience - it requires complete motionlessness from it for thirty-forty minutes.

Exactly in the goal

With the advent of scintigraphy, radioisotope diagnostics received a second life. This is one of the few methods that identifies the disease at an early stage. For example, cancer metastases in the bones are detected by isotopes for half a year earlier than on x-ray. These six months can cost a person life.

In some cases, isotopes are generally the only method that can give a doctor information about the state of the patient organ. With their help, the kidney disease is detected when nothing is determined on the ultrasound, the microfarcts of the heart are diagnosed, invisible to the ECG and Echo Cardiogram. Sometimes a radioisotope study allows the doctor to "see" a pulmonary artery thromboembolism, which is not visible on an x-ray. Moreover, this method gives information not only about the form, structure and structure of the body, but also allows you to estimate its functional state, which is extremely important.

If earlier with the help of isotopes only examined the kidneys, the liver, gallbladder and thyroid gland, now the position has changed. Radio isotope diagnosis is used in almost all areas of medicine, including microsurgery, neurosurgery, transplantology. In addition, this diagnostic technique allows not only to deliver and refine the diagnosis, but also to evaluate the results of treatment, including leading permanent monitoring of postoperative patients. For example, without scintigraphy, it is not necessary when preparing a patient to the aortocortonary shunting. And in the future, it helps to evaluate the effectiveness of the operation. Isotopes identify states threatening human life: myocardial infarction, stroke, pulmonary thromboembolism, traumatic hemorrhages in the brain, bleeding and acute diseases of the abdominal organs. Radioisotope diagnostics helps to distinguish cirrhosis from hepatitis, see the malignant tumor at the first stage, identify signs of rehabilitation of transplanted organs.

Under control

There are almost no contraindications to radioisotope research. It introduces an insignificant number of short-lived and quickly leaving the organism of isotopes. The amount of the preparation is calculated strictly individually depending on the weight and growth of the patient and on the state of the body under study. And the doctor necessarily selects the sparing mode of the study. And most importantly: irradiation with radioisotope examination is usually even less than when radiographic. Radioisotope research is so safe that it can be carried out several times a year and combine with an x-ray.

In case of an unforeseen breakdown or accident, the isotopic office in any hospital is securely protected. As a rule, it is located far from the healing offices - on the first floor or in the basement. Floors, walls and ceilings in it are very thick and covered with special materials. The supply of radioactive substances is deep underground in special candidated storage facilities. And the preparation of radioisotope preparations is made in exhaust cabinets with lead screens.

Continuous radiation control is also conducted using numerous meters. The department employs trained personnel, which not only determines the level of radiation, but also knows that in the event of a leakage of radioactive substances. In addition to employees of the department, the level of radiation is controlled by SES specialists, state station, Moscow Complex and ATC.

Easy and reliability

Certain rules during a radio-isotope study should be adhere to the patient. It all depends on which authority is supposed to be examined, as well as from the age and physical condition of the patient. So, in the study of the heart, the patient should be ready for physical exertion on the cyergometer or on the walking path. The study will be better, if you do it on an empty stomach. And, of course, it is impossible to take drugs a few hours before the study.

Before scintigraphy bones, the patient will have to drink a lot of water and often urinate. Such flushing will help bring isotopes from the body that did not dare in the bones. In the study of the kidneys, you also need to drink more fluid. Liver and biliary scintigraphy make on an empty stomach. And the thyroid gland, light and brain are investigated at all without any preparation.

Radioisotope examination may prevent metal items that are between the body and the gamma chamber. After the administration of the drug, it is necessary to wait until he reaches the necessary organ and distribute it in it. During the study, the patient should not move, otherwise the result will be distorted.

The simplicity of radioisotope diagnostics makes it possible to examine even extremely heavy patients. It is also used in children, starting from three years, they are mainly investigated by kidneys and bones. Although, of course, children require additional training. Before the procedure, they give a soothing, so that during the study they are not spinning. But pregnant radioisotope research is not carried out. This is due to the fact that the developing fruit is very sensitive even to minimal radiation.

The radioactivity of drugs can be determined by an absolute, calculated and relative (comparative) method. The latter is most common.

Absolute method.The thin layer of the material under study is applied to a special thinnest film (10-15 μg / cm²) and is placed inside the detector, as a result of which the full body angle (4) of the registration of departing, for example, beta particles is used and is achieved almost 100% of the account efficiency. When working with a 4 counter, you do not need to enter numerous amendments, as with the calculated method.

The activity of the drug is expressed immediately in the units of activity of the BC, KU, MKU, etc.

Settlement methodthe absolute activity of alpha and beta emitting isotopes using conventional gas-discharge or scintillation counters is determined.

The formula for determining the activity of the sample introduced a number of correction coefficients that take into account the loss of radiation during the measurement.

A \u003d.N./  q. r. m. 2,22  10 ¹²

A.- the activity of the drug in the CU;

N.- account speed in imp / min minus background;

 - amendment for geometric measurement conditions (body angle);

 amendment to the resolution of the counting installation;

-correction for the absorption of radiation in the layer of air and in the window (or wall) of the meter;

-amendment to self-absorption in the layer of the drug;

q. -pravka for reverse scattering from the substrate;

r.- amendment on the decay scheme;

-amendment on gamma radiation with mixed beta, gamma radiation;

m.- mood of the measuring drug in mg;

2,22  10 ¹² - translation ratio from the number of decays per minute to ki (1c \u003d 2.22 * 10).

To determine the specific activity, it is necessary to translate with 1 mg per mg to 1 mg .

Aud.\u003d A * 10 6 , (K.u./ kg)

Radiometry preparations can be prepared thin, Tolstoy or intermediate layer The material under study.

If the material under study has layer of half weakening - 1/2,

that thin - With D.<0,11/2, intermediate - 0,11/2thick (Tolstast preparations) D\u003e 41 / 2.

All correction coefficients themselves depend on many factors and in turn are calculated on complex formulas. Therefore, the calculated method is very laborious.

Relative (comparative) method Found a wide application in determining the beta activity of drugs. It is based on a comparison of the score rate from the standard (a drug with known activity) at the rate of the measured drug.

In this case, there must be completely identical conditions when measuring the activity of the standalone and the drug under study.

Apr \u003d ATE *N.etc/N.atwhere

ATE -activity of the reference preparation, ad / min;

Apr-radioactivity of the drug (samples), ad / min;

NET-speed account of the standard, imp / min;

NPR -Score account from the drug (sample), imp / min.

In passports on radiometric and dosimetric equipment, it is usually indicated with which error is made measurements. Limit relative errormeasurements (sometimes they are called the main relative error) is indicated as a percentage, for example,  25%. For different types of instruments, it can be from  10% up to 90% (sometimes a separate measurement type error is indicated for different parts of the scale).

According to the maximum relative error ± %, you can define the limit absolutemeasurement error. If the indications of the device A are removed, then the absolute error \u003d А / 100. (If a \u003d 20 mp, a \u003d 25%, then really a \u003d (205) mp. Those. Within the limits of 15525mr.

Ionizing radiation detectors. Classification. The principle and scheme of the scintulation detector.

Radioactive radiation can be detected (highlighted, detected) using special devices - detectors, the work of which is based on the physicochemical effects arising from the interaction of radiation with a substance.

Types of detectors: ionization, scintillation, photographic, chemical, calorimetric, semiconductor, etc.

The most common detectors based on measuring the direct effect of the interaction of radiation with a substance - ionization of the gas medium, this is: - ionization chambers;

- proportional counters;

- Geiger Muller Counters (gas-discharge counters);

- corona and spark counters,

as well as scintillation detectors.

Scintilant (luminescent) the method of registration of radiation is based on the property of scintillators to emit visible light radiation (light flashes - scintillation) under the action of charged particles, which are converted by the photoelectron multiplier to the electrical current pulses.

Cathode Dinododododod Anode Scyntulation meter consists of a scintillator and

FEU. SCINCILLANTS can be organic and

inorganic, solid, liquid or gas

condition. This is iodide lithium, sulfur zinc,

iodide sodium, single crystals Angrazen, and others.

100 +200 +400 +500 Volt

Work FEU:- under the action of nuclear particles and gamma quanta

atoms are excited in the scintillator and the quanta of visible color is emitted - photons.

Photons bombard the cathode and knock out photoelectrons from it:

Photoelectrons are accelerated by an electric field of the first dinode, the secondary electrons are knocked out from it, which are accelerated by the second dynod field, etc., before the formation of an avalanche flux of electrons entering the cathode and the recorded electron diagram. The effectiveness of the scintillation counters account reaches 100%. High-speed ability is significantly higher than in ionization chambers (10 B-5th -! 0 B-8th versus 10¯³ in ionization chambers). Scintillating counters find very wide use in radiometric equipment

Radiometers, appointment, classification.

By destination.

Radiometers - Devices designed for:

Measurements of activity of radioactive preparations and radiation sources;

Determining the density of the flow or intensity of ionizing particles and quanta;

Surface radioactivity of objects;

Specific activity of gases, liquids, solids and bulk substances.

In radiometers, gas-discharge counters and scintillation detectors are mainly used.

They are divided into portable and stationary.

As a rule, they consist of: -dector-sensor sensor; -Impulse amplifier; - test device; -Electromechanical or electronic numbering; high voltage source for detector; - power source for all equipment.

In order of improvement, produced: Radiometers B-2, B-3, B-4;

decatron radiometers PP-8, RPS-2; Automated laboratories "Gamma-1", "Gamma-2", "beta-2"; equipped with computers that allow you to calculate up to several thousand sample samples with automatic printing of results. Installations of DP-100, Radiometers KRK-1, SRP-68 are widely used. -01.

Specify the purpose and characteristics of one of the devices.

Dosimeters, appointment, classification.

The industry produces a large number of types of radiometric and dosimetric equipment that can be classified:

According to the method of registration of radiation (ionization, scintillation, etc.);

According to the type of recording radiation (, , , n, p)

Power source (network, battery);

At the place of use (stationary, field, individual);

By destination.

Dosimeters. - devices measuring the exposure and absorbed dose (or dose rate) of radiation. Basically consist of a detector, an amplifier and a measuring device, the detector can serve as a ionization chamber, a gas-discharge counter or a scintillation counter.

Are divided by dose power meters - this is DP-5B, DP-5B, IMD-5, and individual dosimeters - Measure radiation dose over time. This is DP-22B, ID-1, KID-1, KID-2, etc. They are pocket dosimeters, some of them are straight-point.

There are spectrometric analyzers (AI-Z, AI-5, AI-100) - allowing to automatically determine the radioisotope composition of any samples (for example, soil).

There is also a large number of signaling devices on the excess of the radiation background, the degree of contamination of surfaces. For example, SGB-03 and SVB-04 signals the exceedment of the contamination of the hands of beta-active substances.

Specify the purpose and characteristics of one of the devices

Equipment of the radiological department of the windborer. Characteristics and operation of the SRP-68-01 radiometer.

Table equipment of the radiological departments of regional vetbablaborate and special district or inter-district radiological groups (with district vetbabluorias)

Radiometer dp-100

Radiometer KKK-1 (RKB-4-1EM)

Radiometer SRP 68-01

Radiometer "Beeskelett"

Radiometer - Dosimeter -01r

Radiometer DP-5V (IMD-5)

DP-22B dosimeter kit (DP-24B).

Labs can be equipped with other types of radiometric equipment.

Most of the above radiometers and dosimeters are available at the Department in the laboratory.

Periodization of hazards at the accident at the NPP.

In nuclear reactors, internal studio energy is used, which is released during the chain reactions of division U-235 and PU-239. With a chain fission response, both in a nuclear reactor and an atomic bomb forms about 200 radioactive isotopes of approximately 35 chemical elements. In the atomic reactor, the chain reaction is controlled, and nuclear fuel (U-235) "burns out" in it gradually within 2 years. Products of divisions - radioactive isotopes are per capita to TVEL (fuel element). In the reactor atomic explosion, neither theoretically, nor can not. On the Chernobyl, as a result of the staff errors and the gross violation of the technology, a thermal explosion occurred, and the p / a of isotopes were thrown into the atmosphere for two weeks, they were widened by winds in different directions and, settled in extensive territories, created spotted pollution of the terrain. Of all the p / a of isotopes, the most biologically dangerous were: Iodine-131 (I-131) - with a half-life (T 1/2) 8 days, Strontium - 90. (SR-90) - T 1/2 -28 years and Cesium - 137. (CS-137) - T 1/2-30 years. At the Chernobyl, as a result of the accident, 5% of fuel and accumulated radioactive isotopes were thrown out - 50 mqi activity. By Cesium-137, this is equivalent to 100 pcs. 200 CT. Atomic bombs. Now there are more than 500 reactors in the world, and a number of countries by 70-80% provide themselves with electricity at the expense of NPPs, in Russia 15%. Taking into account the exhaustion in the foreseeable future of organic fuel reserves the main source of energy will be atomic.

Periodization of hazards after the Chernobyl accident:

1. The period of acute iodine danger (iodine - 131) within 2-3 months;

2. The period of surface pollution (short and meduhivating radionuclides) - until the end of 1986;

3. Root receipt period (CS-137, SR-90) - from 1987 to 90-100 years.

Natural sources of ionizing radiation. Space radiation and natural RV. Dose from ERF.

In order to establish the possibility of obtaining external irradiation and quantitative determination by the body, taking into account the risk-related risk of the risk of volatile disease, methods of radiation dosimetry are practiced both in environmental environment and relative to a separate person.

In the conditions of the ability to expose to the establishment of this fact and determining the dose of gamma and X-rays obtained during a certain period of time, a method of individual photographic control using film films is proposed. A person carries a small cassette with a sensitive film, which blacks under the influence of irradiation. The degree of refrigeration depends on the dose of irradiation, which is happening with it. By measuring the degree of reference of the film during a certain time, you can set the received dose.

Another method of individual dosimetric control is to use portable small ionization chambers. Cameras, pre-charged, when wearing them in the presence of radiation lose their charge. For the decline in charge for a certain time, you can calculate the value of the received dose.

The resulting dose of neutron irradiation is determined by the degree of active activity by neutron. Under the influence of neutrons in the tissues, many elements included in their composition are activated: sodium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur, carbon, calcium, etc. The greatest dose is sodium and phosphorus radiation.

To determine the dose of neutrons, it is estimated which part of the sodium and phosphorus located in the body, the content of which fluctuates little, has become influenced by the neutron active. The definition is under blood and urine. In the exact volume of the substrate, the concentration of sodium and phosphorus is a chemical path. The substrate is dried, burned, and the dry residue is applied to the target. With the help of a beta counter, determine the degree of activity obtained, taking into account the specific activity and concentration of sodium and phosphorus in the substrate.

After a few hours after neutron irradiation, the induced activity is due to the main sodium emitting beta particles and gamma quanta. With a minor period of the semi-life of active sodium (15 hours), after a few hours, the value of this isotope is reduced, and the activity is due to the main phosphorus, the half-life of which is 14.3 days.

Since the man irradiated with neutrons becomes a source of gamma radiation, then by the intensity of this, measured by large counters, located around the injured housing, can also be determined by the neutron dose. When evaluating the received dose, the time proceeded from irradiation to the study is taken into account, since the degree of induced activity continuously falls.

After entering active substances, their substances can be partially allocated to secrets and excretions, where the presence of them can be determined or a special chemical path (if these are substances, alien organism in natural conditions), or on the activity of the biosubstrates under study. Most often exposed to steal and urine. Active substances can be alpha, beta and gamma emitters.

The gamma radiation of the human body can be determined by the method used to determine the obtained dose of neutrons. The activity of urine and feces is determined after drying and burning the substrate, applying it to the target and measurements with the help of alpha and beta counters.

However, the exact and permanent relationship between the content of an incorporated substance in the body and the value of its excretion is excreted.

Some active isotopes can be determined by measuring the activity in the blood, if these substances are evenly distributed by the organs, determine the known ratio between their content in the body and blood concentration (sodium, carbon, sulfur).

If the active substances or the products of their decomposition are released in a gaseous form through the lungs, then it is possible to detect their presence by measuring the specific activity of exhaled air using the ionization chamber connected to the device measuring the ionization current.

Very small activity in the preparations can be determined using thick-layer sensitive plates. The drug is applied to the photoemulsion and after due exposion and the manifestation of the plate in the emulsion, the blackened areas - lines caused by the action of moving active charged particles (tracks) are detected.

Alpha particles give short, thick, rectilinear tracks, electrons (beta particles) are thinner, long and curved. Plates are studied under a microscope with an increase of 200-600 times.

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Radioactive drugs

1. The concept of radioactive drugs

Radioactimal Preparatives "(English. Radiopharmaceuticals; Sin.: Radio Prameparamatics, Radio Indicators, Radiopharmaceutical Preparatives (Connection, Sprinkle)) - radioactive isotopes or their compounds with various inorganic or organic substances, intended for medical and biological research, radioisotope diagnostics and treatment of various diseases mainly for radiation therapy of malignant tumors.

For diagnostic purposes, radioisotopes are used, which, when introduced into the body, participate in the studied types of metabolism or the activities of the organs and systems, and can be registered with radiometry methods. Such radioactive drugs, as a rule, have a short effective half-life, which causes a minor radiation burden on the body of the surveyed.

The criterion for the choice of radioactive drugs intended for radiation therapy of malignant neoplasms is the possibility of creating the necessary therapeutic dose of ionizing radiation in the field of neoplasm with minimal exposure to surrounding healthy fabrics. Such an effect is achieved by using radiopharmaceuticals in various aggregate states and forms of delivery to the body (solutions, suspensions, granules, needles, wires, appliquational dressings, etc.) and the use of the most appropriate and emission energy of isotopes.

radioactive drug radiation

2 Classification

Radioactive drugs are divided into open and closed:

· In closed preparations, the radioactive material is enclosed in a protective coating or a capsule, which prevents radioactive pollution of the environment and contact with the radioactive compound of the patient and personnel.

· In open preparations, direct contact of the radioactive substance with the tissues of the body and the environment is carried out.

In leap. The objectives are also used and some open RFP. Some of them are selectively accumulated in one or another patol. focus. For example, a sodium solution of iodide with radionuclide 131i is injected into the treatment of thyrotoxicosis and metastases of thyroid tumors. Other are directly introduced into the fabric to be irradiated, for example. Colloidal solutions with radionuclides 32P, 90Y and 198AU - in Lymph. Vessels and cavities for the treatment of malignant tumors. The main active radiation factor in these cases is beta radiation (see ionizing radiation), which allows you to irradiate patol. The hearth with minimal damage to the surrounding tissues.

The choice of radionuclide for the RFP is determined by the main radiation-physical characteristics: a half-life, which should be able to comply with the duration of the diagnostic study if possible; The type and energy spectrum of radiation, convenient for detection and collimation and, if possible, not possessing the concomitant radiation that creates interference to detecting. The level of irradiation in radio-diagnostic procedures is usually not exceeded by thousandths of heat, that is, it does not represent radiation hazards for the patient.

There is a group of open R. p., K-rye are not injected into the body, but are used for radioimmune analysis of blood samples, urine, gastric juice and other organism fluids. Such drugs usually labeled 125i are used to quantify the content of enzymes, hormones, vitamins and proteins, and the corresponding tests are easier and more sensitive to ordinary biochemical. methods.

In order to ensure radiation safety when using any R. p. It is necessary to observe "the main sanitary rules of work with radioactive substances and other sources of ionizing radiation."

3. List of radioisotopes used

4. History of radioactive drugs

Since 1913, when a more or less inexpensive way of radium production was opened, and until the beginning of the war, the radiation was perceived by people not at all as now, and numerous fraudsters were actively used. Radioactive soap was sold in pharmacies, hands and face creams, toothpastes and powder with radium, drinks with thorium, special devices for adding radium to drinking water, and in Europe and the USA there were spa radio centers, where the treated bathed in radioactive baths and inhale the corresponding inhalations.

In fact, radiation, of course, can be useful. Warz in its study found that many doctors are confident: can be treated with radiation. Only now success and failure correlated approximately as 1 to 100. The real usefulness of radiation began with the French scientist Henri Kutar, which was demonstrated in 1922 at the World Congress of Oncology, which larynx cancer at an early stage can be suppressed by radioactive radiation in such a small dose that third-party effects Will not be observed. It was based on research Claud Ruga. The latter spent an interesting experience in sterilizing rabbit. Rabbit reradeced with ordinary radioactive rays, of course, sterilized, but at the same time he received serious skin injuries and some internal organs. But when dividing the same dose for several within a few days, they led to sterilization - but without damage to the skin.

Katar continued research in this direction and in 1934 (after 12 years, we note!) Presented to the public a technique, which today underlies radiation therapy. He calculated the doses of radiation, the duration, the direction of the impacts on the tumor - in general, I will not go into details, but the percentage of people with which radio therapy helped get rid of cancer, increased thanks to Kutar to 23%. In 1935, his technique was officially introduced in oncological clinics.

There were other amazing radioactive things. For example, X-ray peddoscopes. From produced a company from the English city of Saint-Olbans. The pedoscope (or shoe fluoroscope) was a box with X-ray apparatus installed inside. In the lower part there was a niche where the child who bought shoes was bought, put the leg. And for the child, and for parents from above, eyepieces were provided, through which it was possible to look at the leg in a new boot. Parents, therefore, saw the leg of a baby through - and understood whether the bones are convenient inside the shoe, whether there is another place inside, and then the children often could not really say, picks up or not hem. In the period of popularity (the beginning of the 1950s), about 10,000 pedoscopes were established in the world, but in the late 1950s they were banned in the United States, and a decade later - and in Europe. The last 160 pedoscopes functioned until 1960 in Switzerland.

Bibliography

1. Saxon P.P., Shashkov V.S., Sergeev P.V. Radiation pharmacology. - M.: Medicine, 1976.

2. Bochkarev V.V. Radioactive drugs / brief medical encyclopedia. - 2nd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.

3. Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000.

4. Medical Encyclopedia 2009

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