David Myers Social Psychology. Social Psychology

David Myers "Social Psychology"

(David G. Myers "Social Psychology", 7th Ed., 2002)

This book, at the same time strictly scientific and humane, is filled with facts and intriguing information, which makes her reading not only cognitive, but also fascinating. It describes the fundamental principles of social thinking, social influence and social behavior, as well as a variety of experiments and recent studies. The book will be useful not only to psychologists, but also sociologists, philosophers, political scientists.

Content

Preface

Chapter 1. Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology and related disciplines

Social psychology and human values

The phenomenon "So I knew!" Is it possible to put a sign of equality between social psychology and common sense?

How social psychologists work

Part I. Social Thinking

Chapter 2. I am in the social world

I-concept: who am I?

Required self-control

Predisposition in favor of my

Self Preventation

Chapter 3. Social beliefs and judgments

How we explain the actions of others

Construction of interpretations and memories

How do we judge around

Self-realizable beliefs

Chapter 4. Behavior and Installation

Does the installations define the behavior

Does the installation behavior determines?

Why docts affect installation

Part II. Social influence

Chapter 5. Genes, Culture and Gender

Human nature and cultural differences

Gender differences and similarities

Evolution and Gender: do what is destined in nature?

Culture and floor

Chapter 6. Conformism

Classic research

When does conformism manifest?

Why is conformism manifest?

Who manifests conformism?

Social pressure resistance

Chapter 7. Belief

Methods of belief

The term convictions

Examples of research in the area of \u200b\u200bpersuasive impact: as sects recruit supporters

Resistance to conviction: Installation Vacation

Chapter 8. Influence of the Group

What is a group

Social facilitation

Social lane

Definoidalization

Group polarization

Library thinking

Minority influence

Part III. Social relations

Chapter 9. Prejudice: Antipathy to others

Nature and Power of Prejudice

Social sources of prejudice

Emotional sources prejudice

Cognitive sources of prejudice

Chapter 10. Aggression: Harm to others

What is aggression?

Theories of aggression

Factors provoking aggression

Weakening of aggression

Chapter 11. Attraction and proximity, friendship and love

friendship

Love

Maintaining close relationships

Completion of relationships

Chapter 12. Altruism: Help others

Why do people help each other?

When do we help each other?

Who do we help?

How to make help more common phenomenon?

Chapter 13. Conflict and reconciliation

Conflict

Reconciliation

Modules. Applied social psychology

Module A. Social Psychology in the Clinic

How clinical psychologists make their judgments

Social knowledge and problem behavior

Socio-psychological approach to treatment

Social support and well-being

B. Module Social Psychology and Justice

Testimony of witnesses

Other sources of influence on judgments

Jury as individuality

Jury jury as a group

From the laboratory - to life: Real jury and imitation

Module V. Social Psychology and Reliable Future

Global crisis

Social psychology of materialism and moderation

On the way to reasonable consumption

Glossary

David J. Myers - Professor of Psychology Hope College in Michigan. He is not only a brilliant teacher, but also an outstanding scientist: For the study of group polarization, the American Psychological Association (9th Branch) awarded him a prize of Gordon Allport. His scientific articles are published in more than two dozen magazines. D. Myers - Journal Editor-Consultant Journal of. Experimental Social. Psychology. and Their Journal of. Personality. and. Social. Psychology., author of dozens of books, including popular science.

Preface

When I first offered to write this textbook, I imagined a book that should be simultaneously strictly scientific and human, filled with proven facts and intriguing. It should tell about social psychology at least fascinating than a criminal reporter talks about any investigation, and for this it should be both the generalized results of the most recent studies of the most important social phenomena and information about how scientists study and interpret their . The material must be outlined quite fully, but it should also stimulate thinkingstudents - their willingness to delve into the essence of the problems, analyze them and relate the principles of science with what is happening in real life.

How should the author should take the material for a "sufficiently complete" textbook in that discipline that is engaged in? The material that would be perceived as a whole story, but at the same time he would not scare with his cumbly, because it can be assisted in parts? And I decided to present those theories and data that, on the one hand, is quite accessible to the ordinary student, and on the other - they are not covered in other courses on sociology or psychology, and at the same time turn on the focus on the material that makes it possible to set out social psychology in spirit of intellectual tradition inherent in humanitarian sciences. Humanitarian education, which appeals to the masterpieces of literature and the greatest achievements of philosophy and science, develops our thinking, expands our horizons and frees us from the power of the momentary. Social psychology may also contribute to achieving these goals.

Only a few of those who study psychology in the student years are becoming professional psychologists, almost everyone elected other specialty. Focusing on aspects of this science, important from a humanistic point of view, one can state its fundamental content in such a way that it will be useful to all students and will have a stimulating effect on them.

Social psychology is a real holiday of ideas! Throughout the history of mankind, the social behavior of a person was scientifically studied only for one century, the one who recently ended. If we take into account that we are only at the very beginning of the road, we can say that the results achieved makes it the honor. We have enriched with important information about the beliefs and illusions, love and hatred, about conformism and independence.

Although much in the behavior of a person is still a mystery, social psychology today can partially respond to many intriguing questions:

- Will people behave differently if they first perceive new installations? If so, what method of belief is most effective?

- Why do people sometimes help, and sometimes they harm each other?

- How do social conflicts arise and what should be done in order for his participants to deal with their fists and shook hands?

Answers to these questions - namely, this is my mission as the author of this book - allow us to better understand ourselves and those social forces that affect us.

How was the textbook?

The main course is preceded by a separate chapter that introduces the reader with the methods of social and psychological research. She also warns students that the results that have already become famous can be perceived as something of granted, and that the own moral values \u200b\u200bof social psychologists penetrate the science studied by them. The task that the author put in front of him, working on this chapter, was to prepare students to perceive the above in the remaining chapters.

The book is built in accordance with the definition of social psychology given in it as a science on how people thinkon each other (part I) affect each other (part II) and relateto each other (part III).

Part I is dedicated social thinking, i.e. how we perceive ourselves and others. It provides an assessment of the accuracy of our impressions, intuition and explanation.

Part II is considered social influence. By paying tribute to cultural sources of our installations and having studied the nature of the conformism, beliefs and manual thinking, we can better understand the hidden social forces affecting us.

Part III is devoted to manifestations of both negative and positive social relationship(in the form of installations and behavior). It is built in this way: the story of the aggression is preceded by a statement of material about prejudice, and the story about Altruism is a material about the mutual inconsistencies of people; It is completed by the consideration of the dynamics of the conflict and its permission.

On the practical use of the results of social and psychological research, both in each chapter and in a separate chapter "Applied Social Psychology", consisting of three independent modules: "Social psychology in the clinic", "Social Psychology and Justice" and "Social Psychology and Reliable future".

In this edition, as in the previous one, much attention is paid to various cultures, in which it is possible to make sure, in particular, on the example of Chapter 6, which describes the role of cultural traditions; This is also evidenced by the use of studies conducted in different countries in all chapters. All authors are children of their culture, and I am no exception. And yet, thanks to acquaintance with world psychological literature, a correspondence with researchers living in different parts of the globe, and traveling abroad I had the opportunity to submit to readers from different countries the world of social psychology. The focus, as in previous publications, is given the fundamental principles of social thinking, social influence and social behavior in the form in which they are formulated on the basis of the results of carefully conducted experimental studies. In the hope of expanding our ideas about that single family, which is called humanity, I sought to illustrate these principles with transnational examples.

To facilitate readers to study this book, I again divided every chapter into three or four not very volumetric partitions. Each partition was presented a small announcement, and it completes its resume, systematizing the content of the section and emphasizing the key concepts.

Believing, like Toro, in the fact that "everything we can simply and naturally write to your understandable language," I, working on every paragraph, sought to create as a fascinating and useful textbook as possible. Thanks to the new decoration of the book, drawings and photos acquired b aboutsour expressiveness. As in the previous edition, the end of the book provides a glossary in which the terms used during the presentation are decrypted.

Although there is only one name on the cover of this book, in fact, a large team of scientists participated in its creation. Despite the fact that none of them bears any responsibility for writing me and that not all of them agree with me, their comments and suggestions, undoubtedly, went for me.

Many of those helpful comments and improvements have been preserved in the book, which were made by consultants and reviewers of the first six editions. And I am sincerely grateful to each of them.

I had invaluable help Hope College.(Michigan) and University of St. Andres.(Scotland). Thanks to people working in these educational institutions, and the setting reigning in them, I enjoyed the process of "tooling" "social psychology". IN Hope College.poet Jack Ridle helped me to gain the intonation that you hear when you start reading this book, and Katie Adamski reappeared her benevolence and secretarian talent into it. Willis and Rick Vanderveld coped with all the drawings extremely professionally and quickly. Catherine Braunson, Jennifer Hubert and Rachel Braunson worked on the bibliography, and carried out the entire stationery. Catherine Braunson, besides, worked on the creation of a new heading "Social psychology in my work", it was performed and used abouttheorest part of such ungrateful labor, as drawing up the author's pointer and the page reconciliation of references.

If not a publisher McGraw-Hillin the face of Nelson Black, I would never have any idea to write a tutorial. Alison Meerszherth led the layout of the first edition. Rebecca Hope and Sharon Giri helped me draw up a plan for seventh publication and training aids that are an application to it. The head of the project Siusn Brush, with the active participation of the editor of Lori Baron, patiently led the process of turning the manuscript into a ready-made book.

I sincerely thank everyone who helped me and supported me. Cooperation with them turned the creation of this book into a pleasant and fascinating occupation.

David J. Myers

Chapter 21. Aggression

It seems that our behavior in relation to each other is becoming increasingly destructive. Although the prediction of Woody Allen came true that "By 1990, Kidnepping will be the prevailing form of social cooperation, but the paintings of violence of the 90s were terrified by people around the world. In the United States, where an increase in the number of police and the economic rise of the 90s led to some decline in crime, reported that the number of perceptible crimes reaches one million. The world's maintenance and maintenance of the world consumes $ 1.4 million per minute - and this money that could be spent on the most acute needs of modernity: to fight hunger, on education, environmental protection.

According to social psychologists, aggression is a behavior aimed at bringing harm to another. This does not include road traffic accidents, causing pain during teeth treatment, as well as unintended clashes on sidewalks. Under this definition, the manual attribution, direct insults and even ridicule, if they are pronounced in an unfair tone or when flashing emotions. When the inhabitants of Iraq destroyed the inhabitants of Kuwait, invading their country, and the allies killed 100,000 Iraqis, extending them from Kuwait, the motives of actions can be called instrumental - it was a simple way to seize the territory, but their behavior nevertheless was aggressive.

Biological factors

The philosophers argued for a long time, by whom the person is by its nature: a good-natured and priest "noble savory" or, mostly unmanaged, impulsive animals? The first idea, usually associated with the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, imposes a guilt for social evil not to human nature, but to society. The second representation, which, in turn, is associated with the philosopher Thomas Hobbes, 1588-1679), considers social constraints as necessary for curbing animals manifestations of human nature in need of strict control. In our century, Hobbes looks that aggressive motivations are congenital and therefore inevitable, Sigmund Freud and Conrad Lorenz were separated.

Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that the source of human aggression is to reorient the energy of primitive attraction to death (which he called the "instinct of death") on others. Lorenz, who studied the behavior of animals, considered aggression rather as an adaptive, and not as self-destructive behavior. But both scientists are unanimous in the fact that aggressive energy has an instinctive nature. In their opinion, if it does not find a discharge, it accumulates until it explodes or while the appropriate stimulus will not release it out, like a mouse from a mousetrap. Lorenz (1976), despite his employment, participated in the discussion on the topic, whether the person has congenital mechanisms of braking aggression (those that make us defenseless). He was frightened by the "Fight Instinct" armed, without the presence of its braking means.

The idea to consider aggression by instinct confirmed its complete inconsistency when the list of all sorts of human instincts grew to the fact that it began to cover almost all the imaginable actions of a person. In addition, scientists have already begun to make aware of how much behavior varies from one person to another and from one culture to another. Obviously, physiological factors affect our behavior as successful as education - on our character. Our experiences are interrelated with our genetically built nervous system.

The effect of the nervous system

Aggression is a complex behavioral complex, there is no "the center of control of aggression" in the human brain. However, scientists have discovered - both in animals, and in humans - sites of the nervous system responsible for the manifestation of aggression.

When these brain structures are activated, hostility increases; Deactivation leads to a decrease in hostility. That is why even the most meek animals can be enraged, and the most ferocious - to tame.

In one of the experiments, researchers gave an electrode to the brain of the dominant monkey - to the area responsible for braking aggression. Having received at its disposal a remote control, a small monkey learned to press the button activating the electrode, whenever the monkey-tyrant began to behave threateningly. The activation of the brain is also manifested in humans. So, after painless to the patient, the electric stimulation of the almond-shaped body (section of the cerebral cortex), she came into rage and smithereens broke their guitar about the wall. Only by chance she missed and therefore did not damage the head to the psychiatrist (Moyer, 1976, 1983).

Genetic factors

Heredity affects the sensitivity of the nervous system to the causative agents of aggression. It is well known that some animals are bred with the calculation of their aggressiveness. Sometimes this is done from practical considerations (breeding of fighter roosters), sometimes scientific purposes are being pursued. Kirsty Lagerpets (Kirsti Lagerspetz, 1979), Finnish psychologist, took ordinary albinos mice and divided them into two groups: on aggressive and non-aggressive. Repeating this procedure in 26 generations, she received one litter of incredibly ferocious mice, and the other is exceptionally calm.

Similarly, the aggressiveness varies with primates, and in humans (Asher, 1987; Olweys, 1979). Our temperament is how much we are susceptible and reactive, it is partly given to us from birth and depends on the reactivity of our sympathetic nervous system (Kagan, 1989). Interviewed monosic twins (with identical genotype) more often than dialing (whose genotypes are different, like ordinary brothers and sisters), expressed a similar opinion about the degree of their "hotness" (Rushton Others, 1986).

Biochemical factors

The chemical composition of the blood is another factor affecting the sensitivity of the nervous system to stimulate aggression. Both laboratory experiments and information coming from police stations show: people in a state of alcohol intoxication are much easier to provoke on aggressive behavior (Taylor Leonard, 1983; Bushman Cooper, 1990; Bushman, 1993; Taylor Charmack, 1993). People who are guilty of violence, often: 1) abuse alcohol; 2) become aggressive against intoxication (White Others, 1993).

Under the experimental conditions, the tests that are in a state of intoxication send stronger discharges of the electric current "punishable". In the real world under the influence of alcohol, almost half of crimes related to violence, including sexual nature (Abbey Others, 1993, 1996; Seto Barbaree, 1995) are performed. In 65 cases from 100 killer and / or his victim acted alcoholic beverages (American Psychological Association, 1993). Alcohol enhances aggressiveness, reducing the system of bemppedion, relaxing the ability to foresee the consequences of the actions performed (Hull Bond, 1986; Steele Southwick, 1985). Alcohol flies off individuality and removes prohibitions.

There are other biochemical influences; So, the high level of blood sugar may increase human aggressiveness. Although hormonal influence briefly manifests itself in animals than in people, drugs that reduce the level of testosterone in men prone to violence, weaken their aggressive inclinations. After reaching 25 years of age, the level of testosterone in the blood of men decreases, in parallel decreases the number of "violent" crimes.

In prisoners convicted of unwriting violent actions, testosterone level is usually higher than that of prisoners who committed crimes not related to violence (DABBS, 1992; Dabbs Others, 1995, 1997). It is also noticed that among normal adolescents and adult men, those who have a testosterone level above are more prone to divinted behavior, drug dependence and aggressive manifestations in response to provocation (Archer, 1991; Dabbs Morris, 1990; Olweus Others, 1988). Testosterone can be compared with batteries energy. The increased consumption of the player's portable batteries will not make it play faster, while with low-power batteries the player will play markedly slower.

So, there are biological, genetic and biochemical factors that contribute to the emergence of aggression. But perhaps, aggression is so significant and an integral part of human nature, what turns peaceful relations into just a non-abundant dream? The American Psychological Association and the International Council of Psychologists, united with other public organizations, unanimously approved a statement developed by a multinational team of scientists (Adams, 1991), which states: "From the point of view of science, it incorrect to declare that war and in general behavior associated with violence, Genetically laid in human nature and that wars are called "instinct" - that is, ultimately, have some one simple motivation. " As we will see further, there are real ways of weakening human aggression.

Psychological factors

Frustration and aggression

Warm evening. Tired and tired after two hours of classes, you take off the friend of a little small coins and hurried to the nearest machine with the inscription "Prokhalia drinks". While the machine swallows a trifle, you almost feel the taste of a cold, refreshing cola. But the button is pressed - and nothing happens. You press again. Then click on the refund button. Again nothing. Then you are already starting to quoy on all buttons without parsing and with all the force you shake the machine. And here with unfulfilled thirst you wander back to your textbooks. Should your neighbor in the room beyond you? Will the likelihood of what you say or do something unpleasant to him?

According to one of the first psychological theories of aggression, the answer will be: "Yes, it would be good for him to annoy." "Frustration always leads to the manifestation of aggression," John dollar wrote and his colleagues (John Dollard Others, 1939, p. 1). Frustration is all that impedes the achievement of the goal (including a faulty automatic with the inscription "Cooling drinks"). Frustration is enhanced when our dedication has a very strong motivation when we expect to get satisfaction, but it is blocked.

As shown in Fig. 21-1, the energy of aggression is not necessarily directed to the cause, which caused it. Gradually, we teach to suppress the desire of direct retaliation, especially when inconsistency may entail disapproval or even punishment from others. Instead of a direct response, we transfer our hostile feelings for more harmless targets. It is about such a displacement that we are talking in the old joke about the husband, who scolds a wife who screams on a son who kicks a dog that bites the postman.

[Incitement to aggression, aggression aimed at night, direct expression of aggression, frustration (purpose), other possible reactions (for example, care), aggression directed inward (for example, suicide), displaced aggression]

Fig. 21-1. Classical theory of frustration-aggression. Frustration creates motivation for the manifestation of aggression. The fear of punishment or condemnation for aggression directed directly to the root cause of frustration may cause the transfer of an aggressive strike to another target or even on itself (according to Dollard Others, 1939; Miller, 1941).

Laboratory tests of the theory of frustration-aggression gave mixed results: Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness, sometimes no. For example, if the reasons for the frustrations were quite clear, as in one of the experiments of the Eugene Bumstein Philip Worchel, 1962, where the experimenter's assistant often interrupted the process of group solutions to problems, since he constantly faced the hearing aid (and It's not easy because it was inattentive), frustration did not give any irritation or aggression.

Realizing that in its original form the theory exaggerates the importance of communication of frustration and aggression, Leonard Berkovits (Leonard Berkowitz, 1978, 1989) revised it. He put forward the assumption that frustration causes irritation and emotional readiness to react aggressively. A person annoyed to a greater extent if the one who caused his frustration had the opportunity to act otherwise (Averill, 1983; Weiner, 1981). A person who experiences frustration is more likely to score on the offender when it provokes it. Sometimes a plug, with difficulty restraining anger, flies out of the neck and without provocation. However, in any case, stimuli associated with aggression increase aggression (Carlson Others, 1990).

Berkovits (1968, 1981, 1995) and other researchers found that a weapon is in the field of view. In one of the experiments, children after fun with toy weapons are more readily destroyed the construction of cubes made by other people's hands. In another experiment, the angry students of Wisconsin University sent their "offender" electrical discharges of greater strength, when a rifle or revolver was in the field of their vision (presumably left to overlook after the previous experiment), which in the case when "randomly left objects" were rackets for Badminton (Berkowitz LE Page, 1967). That is why Berkovits was not surprised at all, when he learned that half of all murders in the United States was performed with the help of personal firearms and that if the weapons were kept at home, then someone from the home, and not the uninvited guest, will be killed. "Weapons not only allows you to commit a crime," says Berkovits, "it can also push the crime. The finger stretches to the jurka, but the trigger stretches to the finger. "

Not surprised Berkovitsa and the fact that in those countries where the wearing of firearms is prohibited, there are fewer killings. In England, four times less than the population than in the United States, and sixteen times less murders. In the United States, 10,000 murders are performed using firearms per year, in England - about ten. In Vancouver (British Columbia) and in Seattle (Washington) the same population, climate, economy and crime rate. However, in Vancouver, where it is strictly limited to the purchase of firearms, murders performed by firearms are five times less than in Seattle, and therefore the total number of murders are 40% lower (Sloan Others, 1988). After in Washington, a law was adopted, limiting the rights to possession of firearms, the number of killings committed there with its use, and the number of suicides sharply decreased by about 25%. Changes did not affect other methods of murder and suicide, nor neighboring districts, which this law did not extend (Loftin Others, 1991).

Weapons not only provoke aggression, but also creates a psychological distance between the aggressor and his victim. As was shown in the works of Milgram, dedicated to the study of subordination, the spatial distance from the victim facilitates the manifestation of cruelty. You can kill with a knife, but it is harder and happening less often; It is much easier to kill when you just click on the trigger, being at a considerable distance from the victim.

Aggression: the process of learning

The theories of aggression, based on the concepts of instinct and frustration, suggest that hostile motives splash outwards outward emotions, which naturally "push" aggression from the inside to the surface. Social psychologists believe that, in addition, a person learns to "push" his aggression himself.

Fruits aggression

On our own experience and watching others, we begin to understand that aggressiveness can be purchased. Under the experimental conditions, obedient animals turned into ferocious dracans; On the other hand, repeating lesions lead to the formation of submission to fate (Ginsburg Alice, 1942; Kahn, 1951; Scott Marston, 1953).

And we also begin to understand that aggression can be encouraged and rewarded. A child who fighters other children with success with his aggressive actions becomes more aggressive (Patterson Others, 1967). Aggressive hockey players are those who most often sits on a penalty bench because of a rough game, - bring more points with their team than non-aggressive players (McCarthy Kelly, 1978a, 1978b). Canadian juniors hockey players, whose fathers approve of a rough game, demonstrate more aggressive style of the game (Ennis Zanna, 1991). In these cases, aggression is a tool for obtaining a certain remuneration.

Collective violence can also be an income. After the rebellion in the vicinity of Liberty City in Miami, President Carter arrived there to personally assure the inhabitants that he is interested in the sooner assistance. As a result of the rebellion in Detroit in 1967, the Ford's automotive company increased the number of hired workers from national minorities, which gave a reason to the Aktera-comiky Dick Gregory to joke: "Last summer, the fire approached too close to the Ford's plant. They did not fall on their Mustangs, Baby. " When the rebellion in the Republic of South Africa became frequent in 1985, the government annulled laws prohibiting mixed marriages, offered to restore the "civil rights" of the Black population (with the exception of the right to vote), and also abolished hated pass, with the help of the monitoring of the movements of blacks. The point here is not that people are deliberately planning unrest, relying on their instrumental value, but in the fact that sometimes aggression is paid well. In any case, it attracts attention.

The same is true for terrorist acts, through which people who do not have the influence and power of people take adoption by universal attention. "Kill one - you will frighten ten thousand," assures the ancient Chinese saying. Nowadays, world commutations, the murder of one person can scare 10 million, as happened in 1985, when a series of terrorist attacks carried 25 Americans. It sowed in the hearts of travelers greater fear than 46,000 deaths that occurred as a result of road accidents. Recall the bomb also destroyed the federal building in Oklahoma in 1995, - he stunned literally all of America. If you deprive the terrorism that Margaret Thatcher called "oxygen of publicity", he would definitely decline, concludes Jeffrey Rubin (Jeffrey Rubin, 1986). Here are the incidents that took place in the 70s, when naked fans flashed on TV screens for a few seconds, swirl powdered along the football field. As soon as broadcasting workers decided to ignore such cases, they immediately stopped.

Science through observation

Albert Bandura (Albert Bandura) has developed the theory of social learning. He was convinced that we learn to show aggression not only because it was profitable - we also adopt it as a model of behavior, watching other people. Like most other social skills, we assimilate an aggressive behavior, observing the actions of others and noting the consequences of these actions.

According to Bandura (1979), everyday life constantly demonstrates us a model of aggressive behavior in the family, subculture and media. Children whose parents often resort to punishment, usually use the same aggressive forms of behavior in relations with others. Parents are achieved by children obedience with the help of okhriches, slappers and subtitlers and thus teach aggression lesson as a solution to solve problems (Ratterson Others, 1982). Very often, such parents themselves were subjected to physical punishments in childhood (Bandura Walters, 1959; Strans Gelles, 1980). Although most of the children who experienced the ill-treatment of adults do not become further criminals or cruel parents, 30% of them are still abused by the punishments of their children: they punish them four times more often than the average parent (Kaufman Zigler, 1987; Widom, 1989) . Inside the family, violence leads to violence.

Social environment outside the house provides a wide selection of aggressive behavior models. In communities, where the male style "macho" causes admiration, aggression is readily transmitted by the new generation (Cartwright, 1975; Short, 1969). Painted by violence The subculture of adolescent gang shows teenagers samples of aggressive behavior. In such sports, such as football, on the manifestation of violence on the game field in most cases, follow the manifestations of violence among fans (Goldstein, 1982).

Richard Nisbett (Richard Nisbett, 1990, 1993) and giving Kokhen (Dov Cohen, 1996) studied the impact of subculture, using data on the manifestations of violence in cities in the south of America, inhabited by the descendants of the Scottish Irish shepherds, in the cultural tradition of which was attached to the special importance of "male honor "and aggressive protection of their herds. Among those who inherited this culture, today there is a three-time killings compared to the killings among the white population in the cities of New England, populated by good-apartments and decent poubitans, quakers and descendants of Dutch rural masters. Cultural heirs of shepherds are more approvingly related to children's fights, more often become active supporters of military initiatives and advocate the acquisition of personal weapons.

So, people face aggressiveness and on their own experience, and with the passive observation of aggressive behavior models. But in what situations they acquired skills get a practical implementation? Bandura argues (1979) that aggressive actions are motivated by a variety of oververable experiences - frustration, pain, insults.

Aversion experience causes us emotional arousal. But then we will behave aggressively or not depends on the expected consequences of violence. Aggression is more likely to appear when we are excited and when aggressive actions seem safely to us and promise certain benefits.

Effect of external environment

The theory of social learning proposes a perspective that will help us determine the factors affecting aggression. In what conditions do we show aggression? What from outside launches the mechanism of our aggressive reactions?

The researcher Nathan Ezrin (Nathan Azrin) once put the following experiment: rats of rats - through attached electrodes - were subjected to painful electrical current strikes. Ezrin planned to include a current, and then, as soon as the rats approach each other, stop the supply of pain impulses in order to find out: Will it be a reinforcement of their positive interaction? To his vast surprise, the experiment could not be carried out, as it was worth only the rats to feel pain, and they immediately attacked each other - even before the experimental had time to turn off the current. The stronger there was a discharge, respectively, and pain, the more violent was an attack.

Is it true only about rats? The researchers found that the individuals of a wide variety of animals undergoing painful effects showed to each other, the greater cruelty than the strongest painfulness caused by them.

Ezrin (1967) reported that the attacking behavior in response to pain

"In many varieties of rats. We also found that the current of the current caused similar attacks when the pair of individuals of one species were locked in one cell. This applies to some species of mice, hamsters, opossums, raccots, monkeys, foxes, nutria, cats, turtles, monkeys, ferrets, protein, fighter cocks, crocodiles, river crayfish, amphibians and various stems: Boa-Constrictor, Ramuchi Snake, Brown Shielding, black snake, etc. The attack as an answer to the electrical discharge is clearly traced from a variety of animals. In all studied animal species, the attacker reaction to pain stimulation was almost always observed and was instantaneous; In rats, for example, it has arisen "with the speed of pressing the button".

Animals are extremely illegible in the choice of targets. They can attack the representatives of their own species, on other animals, on the plated dolls and even on tennis balls.

Scientists varied and sources of pain. They found that the attack could be provoked not only by the discharge of electric current, but also strong heat, and "psychological pain." For example, when hungry pigeons, extended to receive remuneration in the form of grains after they knocked the beak on a special disk, did not receive anything in response, it caused them the same reaction as the current strikes. "Psychological pain" is, of course, the same thing that we call frustration.

Pain increases aggressiveness and people. Many of us can remember their reaction that we have an unexpected and strong thumb blast or painful headache. Leonard Berkovits and his staff showed the emergence of an aggressive reaction, offering students of Wisconsin University to hold one hand either in a little warm or cold to water pain. Those who lowered her hand in ice water reported on growing annihios and annihilation and the fact that they were literally ready to shower the curses of a neighbor who had made unpleasant sounds. The results obtained allowed Berkovitsa (1983, 1989) to conclude that it was not frustration, but rather an obverse stimulation is the main trigger mechanism of hostile aggression. Frustration definitely represents one of the most important sources of unpleasant sensations. But any perverse event, whether it is unfulfilled waiting, personal insult or physical pain, can lead to an emotional explosion. Even a painful depressive state increases the likelihood of aggressiveness.

The ambient situation may also cause aggression. The disgusting smells, tobacco smoke, air pollution - all this may be associated with aggressive behavior (Rotton Frey, 1985). The most studied irritant of the medium is the heat. William Griffith (1970; Griffitt VeiTch, 1971) found that compared with students who filling the questionnaires in a room with a normal air temperature, those who did it in a too stuffy room (with a temperature above 32 ° C), were more often talked about that they felt soil, aggressive; In addition, they reacted more hostile to the appearance of foreign ones. Further experiments have shown that the heat also provokes the manifestations of the vigor (Bell, 1980; Rule Others, 1987).

Does the tired heat leading to an increase in aggressiveness in real conditions just as in laboratory? Turn to statistics.

In the period between 1967 and 1971, mass riots in 79 cities of the United States of America more often took place in hot, and not on cold days.

In hot weather, the likelihood of crimes related to violence increases. This was confirmed in De Moine (Cotton, 1981), Dayton (Rotton Frey, 1985), Houston (Anderson Anderson, 1984), Indianapolis (Cotton, 1986), Dallas (Harries Stadler, 1988), Minneapolis (Cohn, 1993).

The greatest number of crimes related to violence is made not only on hot days, but also in the hot season, in hot, stuffy cities and the hottest areas of Western Europe (Anderson Anderson, 1998). If we are saying, we are waiting for the substantial warming of climate, then on the predictions of Anderson's crag, Brad Bushman and Ralph Groam (Craig Anderson, Brad Bushman Ralph Groom, 1997) in the middle of the twenty-first century only in the United States will be made annually at least 115 000 serious offenses.

In the arid Phoenix (Arizona), car drivers not equipped with air conditioners are more often indicating the speed of the vehicle (Kenrick Macfarlane, 1986).

At the Competitions of the Higher League on Baseball, held from 1986 to 1988, the games held at air temperature 32 ° C were much tougher and aggressively compared to games held at temperatures below 26 ° C. (REIFMAN OTHERS, 1991). Players in these matches were just altered.

Attacking behavior

Attacks or insults from another person are an unusually strong causative agent of aggression. Experiments held at the Central Bank of Steward Taylor (Taylor Pisano, 1971), in the Washington State University Harold Dengenrink (Dengenrink Myers, 1977) and in Osham University of Kenniki and Toshihiro Kambara (Kennichi Ohbuchi Toshihiro Kambara, 1985) confirmed that deliberate Insulting or causing pain gives rise to a response attack caused by the thirst for revenge. In most of the studies mentioned, one of the participants in the experiment competed with another for the reaction rate. After each test, the winner prescribed, what will be the power of electrical discharges in the punishment of the loser. Were the winners of the merciful to defeated, given that their roles were constantly changing? Nothing like this. Most often, the principle of "Eye for the eye, tooth for the tooth".

Purchability

Purchability - a subjective feeling of the lack of space - is another factor of stress. Davka on the back of the bus, car traffic jams or excessive number of tenants in the student hostel room create a sense of uncontrollability of the situation (Baron Others, 1976; McNeel, 1980). Can this contribute to the manifestation of aggressiveness?

Stress tested by animals in overcrowded closed space increases the level of aggressiveness (Calhoun, 1962; Christian Others, I960). Of course, there is a noticeable difference between rats in a cage, deer on the island and people in a big city. And yet, undoubtedly, in densely populated cities there is more crimes and people there are more emotional Distress (Fleming Others, 1987; Kirmeyer, 1978). Residents of densely populated cities, unlike residents of cities with a smaller population, often experience fear. The crime rate in Toronto is four times higher than in Hong Kong. But a much greater percentage of Hong Kong residents are four times more than residents in Toronto - report that they are afraid to go outside (Gifford Peacock, 1979).

Weakening of aggression

We met with the theory of instincts, the theory of frustration-aggression and the theory of social learning, and also carefully investigated factors contributing to the emergence of aggression. So what is the result? Can we somehow reduce aggression? What are the ways to control the aggression? What do theory and studies talk about this?

Catharsis

"Young needs to learn how to give their anger," strongly recommends Ann Landers (Ann Landers, 1969). "If a person squeeces from rage, you need to find the valve. We must give him the opportunity to lower the pair, "the famous psychiatrist Fritz Perlz ends (Fritz Peris, 1973). Both allegations are based on the "hydraulic model": the accumulated aggressive energy, like water contained by the dam, is irrebated seeking to break out.

The concept of Qatarsis is usually attributed to Aristotle. Although Aristotle actually did not talk anything about aggression, he argued that we can purify from oppressive emotions, "living" them, and that contemplation of classical tragedies allows us to experience catharsis (cleansing). He believed that emotional excitement carries emotional discharge (Butcher, 1951). Later, the hypothesis of Qatarsis was expanded and began to include an emotional discharge, achieved not only by contemplating dramatic works, but also by causing in memory and "accommodation" to the last events, through the external expression of emotions and through various actions.

Cleansing beneficial and for the soul, and for the body. Even an expression of anger can reassure us for a while, if after that there will be no sense of guilt or anxiety due to the possibility of retaliation (Geen Quanty, 1977; Hokanson Edelman, 1966). But long anger is most likely the new anger. For example, Robert Arms (Robert Arms) and his colleagues report that Canadian and American football fans, fighting and hockey behave more hostile after competitions than before them (Arms Others, 1979; Goldstein Arms, 1971; Russell, 1983). Even the war, and she, apparently, does not give purification from aggressive feelings. Statistics shows that after the war, the number of murders usually rises sharply (Archer Gartner, 1976).

Experiments confirm the same: aggression leads to increased aggression. Ebbe Ebbeene and Employees (Ebbesen Others, 1975) talked with 100 engineers and technicians shortly after receiving warnings about a possible reduction. Some were asked questions that were given the opportunity to express everything they think about their employer or the immediate boss, for example, such a question: "Remember the cases when the company is clearly unjust accounted for with you." After the interview, the interviewed filled out the questionnaire where they were asked to note those penalties, which, in their opinion, deserves the company and bosses. Did it preceding this opportunity to "pull a pair" to reduce the level of aggression? On the contrary, hostility has increased. The expression of hostility leads to an increase in hostility.

Is there something familiar in this? Remember, in Chapter 9, we said that cruelty acts generate a cruel attitude. Moreover, as we have seen in the process of analyzing the experiments of Milgram's experiments, a weak severity of aggressive action can lead to the fact that his person who made him refuses to see anything reprehensible in his act. People detract from the merits of their victims, thereby justifying their aggressive behavior. If the anger manages to get off the first time, the voltage really subsides, otherwise the restraining starts weaken.

Nevertheless, should we restrain aggression and aggressive motivations? Silently sulfur is hardly more efficient than to lose your anger on others, because in this case, we still continue to lose their resentment, mentally leading a controversial dialogue. Fortunately, there are non-aggressive ways to express feelings and inform others about how their behavior affected us. You just need to replace the exposure statements beginning with the pronouns "you", on the statements beginning with the pronouns "I", for example: "I am angry!" Or "when you say so, I'm annoyed." In this case, you express your feelings so that another person will be easier to respond positively on them (Kubany Others, 1995). You can be assertive without aggression.

Approach from the standpoint of social learning

If aggressive behavior is purchased in the process of learning, that is, the hope that it can be controlled. Consider briefly the factors contributing to the emergence of aggression, and think about how they can withstand.

The expression of hostile aggression is pushing various aversive experiences, such as frustration expectations and an insult personality. So it is best not to score by people with uncomfortable dreams and in vain hopes. Instrumental aggression determines the anticipating positive balance between remuneration and costs. It means that we must encourage in children the desire for cooperation and non-aggressive behavior. In the experiments carried out, the children became less aggressive when their aggressive behavior was ignored, and the non-aggressive supported (Hamblin Others, 1969).

But the effectiveness of punishments is very limited. In most cases, deadly aggressive actions were impulsive and sharp - consequence of quarrels, insults or a cruel attack. Thus, we must preempt aggression, without waiting until it arises. We must learn from non-aggressive strategies for solving conflicts. If deadly aggressive actions were cold and instrumental, we could hope that, allowing the criminal to give up his aggressive intentions, and then visually punishing it, we would score others from committing crimes. If everything was happening, then in those states where the death penalty would be made less killings compared to the States where the death penalty was canceled. But in our world everything is happening at all like this (Costanzo, 1998).

If we want the world, we need to form and encourage responsiveness and desire to cooperate from an early age. Maybe it is worth teaching parents to how to achieve discipline from children without violence. Educational programs inspire parents to support the desired behavior using positive wording ("when you finish cleaning your room, you will go play") Instead of negative ("If you don't kill the room, I will compare you from the ground"). The implementation of one such "aggression replacement program" reduced the number of repeated detention of young offenders and adolescent gang members. Adolescents and their parents trained communication skills, emotional self-control, increased their level of arguments about morality (Goldstein Glick, 1994).

If the observation of aggressive behavior relieves prohibitions and raises the desire to imitate, it means that we should refuse to demonstrate in cinemas and on television of particularly cruel, anti-human plots, that is, take measures similar to those that have been taken with regard to racist and sexist plots. We can also "vaccinate" children from the influence of violence shown by the media. Concerned that television still "did not look into the eyes of the facts and did not change its approach to the preparation of programs," Iron and Hiusmann (Eron Huesmann, 1984) told 170 children from Oak-couple-ka (Illinois) that television It depicts the world around the world is unrealistic that aggression is not so common and not so effective, as it is presented from the TV screen, and that aggressive behavior is undesirable. Remembering the results obtained in the study of installations, Irons and Hiusmann offered children to draw conclusions themselves and express critical comments. Research of children has shown that the scenes of violence demonstrated on television has a smaller impact on them compared to children with whom no preliminary conversations were conducted.

Pushing to aggression and aggressive incentives. This suggests the idea of \u200b\u200brestricting access to manual firearms. In 1974, in 1974, a crime control program was carried out, which included strict control of the sale of firearms, as well as the establishment of strict censorship on television and in cinema, which limited the show of the scenes with the use of weapons (Diener Crandall, 1979). Already next year, the number of theft decreased by 25%, the number of shots without a deadly outcome - by 37%. In Sweden, the release of military toys was stopped. The Swedish information service (1980) formulated a national position as follows: "The game in the war teaches to solve the dispute to the violent way."

Such proposals can help in the fight against aggression. However, given the numerous causes of the aggression and the complexity of control over them, is it possible to share optimism contained in the prediction of Andrew Carnegie that in the twentieth century "human-boring will be considered as disgusting, as disgusting seems to us today cannibalism? Since Carnegie spoke these words in 1900, about 200 million people were killed. There is a sad irony in the fact that, although today we understand the nature of human aggression better than ever, human inhumanity hardly decreased.

Concepts for memorization

Purchase (Crowding) is a subjective feeling of insufficient space coming per person.

Displacement displacement is the transfer of aggression from the source of frustration to another target. Usually a new target is much harmless or more socially acceptable.

The theory of social learning (Social Learning Theory) is the theory according to which we study social behavior through observation and imitation and under the influence of awards and punishments.

Frustration (frustration) - blocking targeted behavior.

Chapter 22. Does the media affect social behavior

Starting from the 60s and up to the 90s, in many countries, the continuous increase in the number of crimes related to violence is reported - especially among adolescents. What is the reason? What social powers led to such a rapid growth of violence?

Alcohol contributes to the manifestation of aggression, but since the 60s, the total amount of alcohol consumed not significantly changed (Mcaneny, 1994). Maybe the cause of the growth of violence was the increasing abyss between the power of wealth and powerlessness of poverty? Or reproducing scenes of violence and sexual coercion in the works of mass culture? The last question arises due to the fact that the surge of physical and sexual violence coincided with the participation of the emergence of bloody and frankly obscene scenes in the media. Is the observed relationship just a random coincidence? What are the social consequences of pornography (which is a webcase dictionary define as erotic descriptions and images intended for excitation of sexuality)? And what are the effects of playing scenes of violence in movies and on television?

Pornography and sexual violence

Repeated viewing of fictional erotic scenes has a number of consequences. First, on a background, the attractiveness of a partner in real life may be faced (Kenrick Others, 1989).

Secondly, this can lead to the approval of extramarital sexual relations, as well as to rooting the idea that a woman in sexual relationships should obey a man (Zillmann, 1989). A man begins to perceive the woman primarily as a sexy object, and the woman of men is like a mouse "Macho" (Hansen, 1989; Hansen Hansen, 1988,1990; Lawrence Joyner, 1991). However, socio-psychological studies focus mainly in the image of sexual violence.

Here is a typical scene telling how a man forces a woman to the sexual act: at first she resists and tries to fight off. However, gradually a woman comes to a state of sexual excitement, and there is no trace of its resistance. In the end, it is experiencing ecstasy, begging for the continuation. We all observed or read the non-refined versions of this sequence: it resists, it persists. A decisive man stifies in the arms and kisses a woman, despite its protests. At some point, her hands, before the man repulsed, hugged him tightly, and resistance sinks in a stream of unrestrained passion. When Scarlett Oh "Haru, the heroine" worn by the wind ", dragged into bed, she protests and knocks off, and in the morning wearing singing.

Social psychologists report: showing such scenes, where the man takes the top over the woman, suppresses it, and at the same time it is excited, maybe: 1) distort the idea of \u200b\u200bhow a woman actually responds to sexual coercion; 2) increase the aggressiveness of men in relation to women - at least this is happening when conducting experiments in laboratory conditions.

Distorted perception of sexual reality

Is it possible to observe the scenes of sexual violence promotes the vitality of the myth that some women approve of sexual violence that they don't really mean "no" in fact? To answer this question, Neil Malamut and James Check (Neil Malamuth James Check, 1981) organized for one group of students of the University of Manitoba view two films of a non-primary nature, and for another group - two films where there were rape scenes. A week later, as another experimenter found out, testing, looking films with rape, found sexual violence over a woman more permissible than with a survey before viewing.

It should be noted that films with scenes of manifestation of cruelty produce similar, only even more strong effect. Men who showed such paintings as Texa Massacre ("Texas Chainsaw Massacre") became less susceptible to cruelty and often responded about the victims of violence without any sympathy (Linz Others, 1988, 1989). After watching three evenings for watching such movies, people who participated in the experiment of Charles Mally Mullin Daniel Linz, 1995 (Charles Mullin Daniel Linz, 1995) showed less concern about rape and manifestation of cruelty. In fact, Edward Donnerstein says, Daniel Linz and Stephen Linz and Steven Penrod, Daniel Linz and Steven Penrod, 1987), if someone needs to make people feel querious to all kinds of cruelty, then not the best way to do so - more often show such films ?

Aggression against women

There are many evidence that pornography can provoke a man for aggressive behavior with a woman. Correlation studies confirm this opportunity. As John Kurt notes (Court, 1984), the amount of rape has increased dramatically in the 60s-70s, when pornography spread almost all over the world, except for those countries and regions where it was under control. (Exception serves Japan, where pornography depicting the scenes of violence is permissible, but the number of rape is small. This fact serves as a reminder of the need to take into account other factors.) In Hawaii, the amount of rape between 1960 and 1974 increased nine times, then decreased on the background Temporarily introduced restrictions on pornography, and then, after tightening these restrictions, recently increased.

In another correlation study, Larry Baron and Murray Straus, 1984 (Larry Baron Murray Straus, 1984) found that in the 50 North American states the number of frankly sexual journals (such as "Khastler" and "Playboy") correlates with rape statistics. Accounting for other factors, such as the percentage of young people in each state, only confirmed the presence of a positive connection. Alaska ranked first place for the sale of sex magazines and the first place to rape. Nevada on both of these parameters was the second.

Sexual criminals from Canada and America, as a rule, are recognized that they are active consumers of port-product. According to William Marshall (William Marshall, 1989), the persons who committed rape, as well as accused of sexual attacks for children, much more often watched pornographic magazines and movies than those who did not commit sexual crimes. According to the US FBI, serial killings are performed by active consumers of pornographic products. The same than the Police Department of Los Angeles reported: most of those who committed a sexual crime against children often acquired pornographic products (Bennett, 1991; Ressler Others, 1988). Of course, such a relationship has not yet proves that pornography is the main cause of sexual violence. Perhaps the thrust of criminals to pornography is only a symptom, and not the reason for their mental deflection. In addition, both opposite facts were recorded: in a number of studies, it was revealed that the previous viewing of pornographic films and magazines is not related to sexual aggression (Bauserman, 1996).

Although experiments conducted in laboratories allow you to study the behavior only throughout the short time, causal relationships are quite clearly manifested. In a joint statement made by leading specialists in the field of sociology, the following total was summed up: "View pornographic materials containing violence paintings contributes to the enhancement of cruelty in relation to women" (Koop, 1987). One of the authors of the statement, Edward Donnerstein (Edward Donnerstein, 1980), in the experiment he spent 120 students of Wisconsin University into three groups and organized movie display: the first group is neutral in content; second - erotic; and the third - aggressive-erotic (with scenes of violence). Then the same students, believing that they participate in the new experiment, were to "become teachers" for voluntarily caused men or women and ensure that the "students" remember the meaningless set of syllables. For the mistakes of the "teacher" "punished" the "students" by the blow of an electric current, choosing the strength of the blow. Men, watching the film with scenes of sexual violence, sent discharges of much greater strength, but exclusively - "victims" of the female (Fig. 22-1).

[Electric current discharge intensity, women as an object, men as an object, neutral, erotic, aggressive-erotic, film]

Fig. 22-1. After watching an erotic film with scenes of violence, students sent stronger discharges of electric current than before viewing, and mainly women. (According to Donnerstein, 1980).

If someone from readers is alarming the ethical side of such experiments, then we hurry you to assure: the researchers are aware of how difficult is the question of the admissibility to expose the subjects of so strong and ambiguous experiences. It should be noted that the subjects decide to participate voluntarily and only after receiving exhaustive information on the essence of the experiment. Moreover, at the end of the study, the experimenters are deployed by myths, inspired by porn films. I would like to hope that practiced in such cases expose quite successfully opposes the view that the victim of sexual violence is experiencing the state of Euphoria. Judging by James Check and Neil Malamut (James Check Neil Malamuth, 1984), carried out in universities of Manitoba and Winnipeg, so it is. Those who, after reading stories with episodes of sexual violence, participated in their subsequent discussion, to a lesser extent believed in the myth that a woman is enjoyed when it is raped. A few more studies confirmed the effectiveness of such discussions (Alien Others, 1996). For example, Donnerstein Berkowitz, 1981, noted that those students from Wisconsin University, who, after viewing pornographic materials, participated in the discussion, less willingly than the other participants in the experiment, agreed to recognize that "a gross attack sexually initiates many women."

Such experiments are justified not only from a scientific point of view, but also from the position of humanism. According to a carefully conducted nationwide survey, 22% of women reported that they at one time or another became objects of sexual coercion from men (Laumann Others, 1994). During a survey that covered 6,200 students and 2,200 women from Ohio, 28% of women reported that there were episodes in their lives that fear for a legal definition of rape or rape attempts (Mary Koss Others, 1988, 1990, 1993). Polls conducted in other industrialized countries give similar results. About every fourth case of rapes of previously unfamiliar men and almost all cases of rape victims affected by the police are not reported. Therefore, official data on sexual violence give a biased understanding of the real scale of a similar phenomenon. In addition, a much larger number of women are half of all college student respondents (Sanberg Others, 1985) - said that they were exposed to all kinds of sexual insults (Craig, 1990; Pryor, 1987). Men, whose sexual behavior is offensive and aggressively, usually seek to dominate, show hostility against women and illegible in sexual relations (Anderson Others, 1997; Malamuth, 1995).

Malamut, Donnerstein and Tsilmann (Malamuth, Donnerstein Zillmann) are among those who are seriously concerned that the risk of sexual insult or violence in women is constantly growing. Scientists warn against an overly simplified view of the causes of such a complex phenomenon as violence. As in the case of cancers, it may not be about the only reason here, but on the whole of their complex. In addition, scientists believe that the observation of acts of violence, especially sexual, can have antisocial consequences. Just as the majority of Germans were loyal to offensive anti-Semitic publications, which ultimately led to the Holocaust and Nowadays, most people quietly swallow the perverted ideas about the nature of female sexuality, which in the end leads to what is sometimes called " Holocaust of women "or Holocaust of sexual mockery, insults and violence.

Is there censorship? Most often, people maintain censorship in cases where human rights are molded (for example, in cases of child pornography, propagation of slander and deceiving advertising people). In 1992, the Supreme Court of Canada legalized the censorship for the spread of pornographic materials, calculating that they insult equal rights of women. "If it really is said, equality between men and women achieved, it means that we cannot ignore the threat coming from the distribution of a certain type of materials with the image of violence and degradation," was declared in court.

In the dispute about what is in the first place - the rights of the individual or the rights of the team, most Western nations speak for personal rights priority. As an alternative to censorship, many psychologists put forward the idea of \u200b\u200b"raising the mass consciousness." Recall the researchers achieved success, proving the participants of experiments the inconsistency of popular ideas about the attitude of women to sexual violence. Is it possible to act in a similar way, to bring up the skills of the critical perception of materials offered by the mass culture? Opening the eyes of the face of the pornographic myth about a woman, attracting their attention to sexual insult and violence, one can withstand the stereotypical representation that the forced sexual act delivers a woman pleasure. "Whatever utopian and, possibly naive for our hopes," write Edward Donnerstein, Daniel Linz and Stephen Linz Steven Penrod, 1987, p. 196), - We believe that the truth will still win. Reliable scientific data will be killed by people: not only the one who exposes his body appears, but also the one who looks at it. "

Is this naive for this hope? Judge for yourself: in the absence of a ban on cigarettes, the number of smokers decreased from 43% in 1972 to 27% in 1994 (Gallup, 1994). Without the introduction of censorship for racist themes, the image of an African American as a jester, childish and superstitious, previously dying in the mass culture, today practically extended. Changes in public opinion forced the playwrights, producers and media managers to understand that, developing such images of minority representatives, they come at least unworthy. In the same way, they finally understood that drugs were not such a wonderful thing, as it was presented in many films and songs of the 60-70s. People understood that drugs are dangerous, the use of marijuana by high school students has decreased from 37% in 1979 to 11% in 1992. True, in 1996, a re-splash was observed to 22%. Voices opposing drugs began to sound quieter, besides, in some films and songs about drugs, they again began to say as something mysterious and attractive (Johnston, 1996). Will we look at one day with shame at the time when movies have entertained people with scenes of operation and sexual violence?

Imagine the scene from one experiment Bandura (Bandura Others, 1961). The pupil of one of the pre-school institutions of Stanford sits on the floor and enthusiastically cramming something out of paper and plasticine. In the opposite corner of the room there is an adult, and there is a set of toy machines, a wooden hammer and a large inflatable doll. After a minute of the game with toy machines, the experimenter female experimentaries and for almost 10 minutes, it beats the inflatable doll. She kicks her hammer, pinch, throws on the floor and shouts: "Make him on the nose ... Cray to him ... Well, the stumps it should be! ..."

After the child watches this explosion of rage, he goes to another room where there is a lot of entertaining toys. But after a couple of minutes, the experimenter interferes and says that it is its best toys and it should "take care of them for other children." A frustrated child goes to the next room, where there are also many toys designed for both aggressive, and for a non-aggressive game, and two of them are a doll bobo and a wooden hammer.

If the children did not demonstrate an adult model of aggressive behavior, they rarely showed aggression in the game or conversation and, despite the frustration, played calmly. Those of them who had previously watched aggressive adults, much more often took the hammer and hit the doll. The observation of the aggressive behavior of an adult weakened their restraining starts. Moreover, children often reproduced aggressive actions and words of the experimenter. They seen aggressive behavior reduced their braking and at the same time taught a certain method of manifestation of aggression.

A television

If the observation of the aggressive behavior model can provoke the aggressiveness of children and teach them new ways to manifest it, does not affect them in this way and viewing aggressive scenes shown on television?

Let us turn to some facts related to television. In 1945, in the survey, Gallup asked: "Do you know what television is?" (Gallup, 1972, p. 551). Today in America, as in the entire industrial world, 98% of families have a TV - those who have baths and phones, much less. In the average family, the TV works for seven hours a day: each family member accounts for four hours.

What types of social behavior are simulated in this watch? Since 1967, George George Gerbner Others, 1993, 1994, from Pennsylvania University viewed television programs in those evening hours when the maximum number of spectators is watching, and the morning entertainment transmissions shown on Saturdays. And what did they find? Two of every three programs contained the plots of violence ("the actions of physical coercion, accompanied by either threats of beating or murder, or beating or killings as such"). What does this lead to? By the end of the secondary school, the child brings about 8,000 scenes on television with killings and 100,000 other activities with violence (Huston Others, 1992). Reflecting on his calculations held for 22 years, Herbner (Gerbner, 1994) with sadness states: "There were more bloodthirsty epochs in the history of mankind, but none of them were so impregnated with the images of violence as our. And who knows where this monstrous stream of observed violence will take us ... seeping into each house through the flickering screens of televisions in the form of scenes of flawlessly deviated cruelty. "

Does it have such important? Does the television facility of criminal plots for reproducing those models of behavior that are demonstrated in them? And maybe, on the contrary, the viewer, participating in aggressive actions, is thus exempt from aggressive energy?

The last idea is a variation of the Cathastes of Qatarsis, who claims to view the drama containing the scene of violence, helps people freeze the inside the aggression. The defenders of the mass culture often refer to this theory and remind us that violence has appeared before television. In an imaginary dispute with one of the critics of television, the protector of the media can lead such an argument: "Television did not participate in the mass destruction of Jews and indigenous Americans. Television only reflects our tastes and pleases them. " "I agree," critic answers, "but it is also true that with the beginning of the era of television in America the number of crimes related to violence began to grow several times faster than the population. It seems to me that you yourself are hardly thinking that pop culture only passively reflects tastes, without affecting the public consciousness. " But the defender does not give up: "The epidemic of violence is the result of the impact of many factors. Television even reduces the aggressiveness of people, leading them from the streets and thereby providing the opportunity to give their aggression without the slightest harm to others. "

Influence of television on behavior

Do viewers imitate on-screen violence models? Examples of the reproduction of crimes shown on television, set. In the polling of 208 prisoners every 9 out of 10 allowed that they trained new criminal tricks, watching television programs. And every 4 out of 10 admitted that they tried to commit crimes, seen once on the TV screen (TV Guide, 1977).

Communication of behavior with watching television programs

Newspaper materials about crimes are not yet scientific evidence, therefore, to study the influence of the demonstration of scenes of violence for crime, researchers use correlation and experimental methods. A large number of research was aimed at clarifying the question, whether the TV shows the aggressiveness of schoolchildren is predetermined. To some extent, this assumption was confirmed: the more violence in transmission, the more aggressive child (Eron, 1987; Turner Others, 1986). Communication here is expressed moderately, but it is constantly discovering, studies spent in the USA, Europe and Australia speak about it.

So, can we conclude that the diet composed of scenes of violence gives abundant food of aggression? Perhaps you have already guessed that since we are talking about correlation studies, then causal relations can act in the opposite direction. Perhaps aggressive children prefer to watch aggressive programs. Or is there any third factor - say, a low level of intelligence, and it is he who has children and to the preference of aggressive programs, and to commit aggressive actions?

Researchers, checking similar alternative explanations, study the impact of the "hidden third factor". For this, they alternately exclude all the "suspects" factors. So, the English researcher William Belsson (William Belson, 1978; Muson, 1978) conducted a survey of 1565 London boys, during which it established that, unlike boys, viewed a small number of gears containing cruelty scenes, those who saw them in large quantities (and especially with realistic, not animated images of violence), over the past six months made almost 50% more offenses (said, for example: "I broke the phone in the telephone booth"). Belson (William Belson, 1978; Muson, 1978) was engaged in a study of 22 such "third" factors (for example, the number of families), which could also affect the development of aggressiveness. The comparison of the "avid" lovers of scenes of violence and observing them from time to time showed that the viewing frequency is indeed the third factor that affects the manifestation of aggressiveness in children.

Similarly, Leonard Iron and Rowell Huessmann, 1980, 1985) found that the intensity of watching films with the scenes of violence in 875 eight-year-old children correlates with aggressiveness even after the statistical exclusion of the most obvious third factors. In addition, when they re-examined the same children at the age of 19, it turned out that viewing scenes of violence at 8 years to moderate extent predetermines aggressiveness of 19 years, but aggressiveness at 8 years old does not predetermine the fascination with the scenes of violence at 19 years. This means that aggressiveness follows watching, and not vice versa. These results were confirmed in subsequent studies of the sample of 758 Chicago adolescents and 220 adolescents from Finland (Huesmann Others, 1984). Moreover, when Eron and Hiusmann (1984) turned to the protocols of the first study, conducted with the children of the eight-year-old age, and found data about those who later were convicted of a crime, they noted the following: Thirty-year men, in childhood, more often we saw telecasts with Scenes of violence, more often committed serious crimes (Fig. 22-2).

[Severity of criminal offenses committed under 30 years, low, medium, high, frequency viewing of telecasts at the age of 8]

Fig. 22-2. Looking for children of television programs and criminal actions made by them at a later age. The fact of regular viewing of the TV shows with the scenes of violence by eight-year-old boys foreshadowed serious criminal offenses committed by them to the thirty-year-old age. (According to data from Eron Huesmann, 1984.)

Everywhere with the advent of television, the number of murders increased. In Canada and the United States between 1957 and 1974, during the distribution of television broadcasting, twice as many murders were committed than in previous and subsequent years. In those covered by the census of the population regions where television came later, the wave of murders also rose later.

In South Africa, where there was no television until 1975, the doubling of the number of murders was registered precisely after 1975 (CENTERWALL, 1989). And in the sports grounds in rural areas of Canada, after the spread of television, the level of aggressiveness increased almost twice (Williams, 1986).

These works once again remind the fact that the modern researcher who uses the results of correlation studies should be made with special care to express assumptions about possible causal relations. After all, random relations may occur between the observation of scenes of violence and manifestation of aggression, generated by random third factors. However, fortunately, the experimental method allows you to monitor these foreign factors. If we break into two groups a random sample of children and one group will show a movie with the scenes of violence, and the other is a film that does not contain such scenes, any subsequent differences in the manifestation of aggressiveness between these two groups will be obliged to appear the only factor that they are before Watching it.

Experiments conducted

In the innovative experiments of Albert Bandura and Richard Walters, 1963 (Albert Bandura Richard Walters, 1963), observation of children by how adults beat an inflatable doll, sometimes replaced by viewing the same actions of adult, but filmed to film - and it gave a lot of similar effect. Later Leonard Berkovitz and Russel Geen, 1966) found that angry students, if they watched the film with the scenes of violence, behaved more aggressively than those who have experienced as strong anger, but watching films without scenes of violence . These laboratory experiments are associated with the concern of the public were an impetus for submission to the Commission to the Main Medical Office of the United States of the Materials of 50 new studies conducted in the early 70s. In detachability, in general, these studies confirmed that the observation of scenes of violence enhances aggression.

In later experiments of a group of researchers under the leadership of Ross Park (Ross Parke, 1977) in the United States and Jacques Layens (Jacques Leyens, 1975) in Belgium, art films were shown in Belgium: one - "aggressive", others - quite peace-loving . The results confirmed that the long-term demonstration of violence leads to increased aggression in the audience. Compared with the week preceding the demonstration of movies, the number of fights in the cottages where boys lived, watching films with the scenes of violence, sharply increased.

Chris Boyatsis and his colleagues (Chris Boyatzis Others, 1995) received similar results when they showed the elementary school of episodes with the scenes of violence from the TV shows "The Great Ranger" ("Power Ranger") enjoying children with great popularity. Immediately after viewing, during the first two minutes, the audience compared to the control group was made seven times more aggressive actions. Just as in the experiments of Bandur with doll bobo, boys often imitated aggressive actions that have just seen by them - for example, used in a karate kick in a jump. In Norway in 1994, a five-year-old girl was thrown by stones, beat off her legs and left to freeze her friends in the snow, clearly imitating the actions seen in the television show. After the occurrence of this show, this show was banned in all three Scandinavian countries (Blucher, 1994).

Convergence of evidence

When studying the influence of television on everyday behavior, various methods were used, many people took part in them. Susan Hirold (Susan Hearold, 1986), Vandy Wood and his colleagues (Wendy Wood Others, 1991), comparing the results of correlation and experimental studies, came to the following conclusion: watching films containing anti-social scenes are really associated with antisocial behavior. This impact is not overwhelming; At times, it takes an implicit form, which allows some critics to express doubts about its existence (Freedman, 1988; McGuire, 1986). In addition, aggression caused in such experiments is not an insult and no beatings, as a rule, it is limited to the impetus for breakfast, offensive replicas and threatening pose.

Nevertheless, the convergence of evidence is impressive. "We cannot do not conclude," the Special Commission of the American Psychological Association has concluded in 1993, - that the observation of scenes of violence leads to an increase in the number of cases of violence. " This is especially noticeable among people with aggressive inclinations (Bushman, 1995). The violence scenes have a special influence when it makes a reliable, attractive hero and its actions not only remain unpunished, but even justify the plot (Donnerstein, 1998). Observation of the scenes of violence often creates the conditions for the occurrence of antisocial effects - the truth is not always. When the unattractive heroes remain unpunished or when the victims of the Holocaust are showing example, in the movie "Schindler List," is unlikely to inspire someone for violent acts.

Why does television broadcast affect the behavior?

From the experiments, we know that prolonged viewing of scenes of violence affects human thinking in two ways. First, it makes people less sensitive to cruelty. Most often in such cases they say: "This does not care at all." Secondly, he distorts the perception of reality from the viewer. People begin to exaggerate the frequency of cases of violence and experience greater fear. But why view scenes violence affects behavior? Based on numerous studies, it is possible to conclude that television and pornography are not the main causes of social violence, as well as synthetic sugar substitutes are not the main cause of cancer. It is more likely that television is one of the reasons. But even if it is just one of the ingredients of a complex recipe for the production of violence, it, like synthetic sugar substitutes, is potentially controlled. Having received a coincidence of correlation and experimental evidence, the researchers thought about why the observation of the scenes of violence gives such a result.

Consider three possible explanation options (Geen Thomas, 1986). First, social violence can be called not by observing violence as such, but by the excitation that occurs during observation (Mueller Others, 1983; Zillmann, 1989). As noted earlier, the excitement tends to transform into something: each type of excitation leads to a special type of behavior.

Secondly, the observation of violence usually dismisses the viewer. In the experiment, the Bandura is an adult, hitting the doll with a hammer, thereby showed the admissibility of such outbreaks of aggressiveness, which led to a weakening of a restraining start in a child. The observation of violence leads to the intensification of violence related thoughts (Burkowitz, 1984; Bushman Geen, 1990; Josephson, 1987). Listening to songs with the text in which sexual violence is approved, inspires young people to behave more aggressive (Barongan Hall, 1995; Johnson, 1995).

An image of violence in the media also provokes imitation. Children in the experiments of Bandura repeated the characteristic behavior, which was observed in reality. Employees of the television industry should always be remembered that the TV shown on the screen pushes the audience to imitation seen: television advertises a behavior model. People who criticize television agree with this: they are extremely concerned that there are four times more in television programs of acts of violence four times than manifestations of tenderness, as well as the fact that television most often modifies the unreal world. Critics love to bring in an example case when two residents of Utah, three times looking at the Magnum Force film, where women were killed with a poisonous liquid cleaner "Drano", a month later repeated seen on the television screen. They killed three people, forcing them to drink "Drano" (Bushman, 1996).

If the styles of relationships and ways to solve problems that are simulated by television are actually running the mechanisms of imitation, especially in young spectators, the formation of common behavior should be socially beneficial. Fortunately, this is true: television and in fact teaches children lessons not only bad, but also good behavior. Susan Hirold (Susan Hearold, 1986) led 108 studies statistics in which the impact of viewing of promial and neutral programs was compared. She found that "if the viewer looked through promial programs instead of neutral, then the level of prosoominality of his behavior increased (at least temporarily) from 50% to 74%, that is, it could already be called a real altruist.

During one of these studies, Lynette Friedrich and Aletha Stein (Lynette Friedrich Aletha Stein, 1973; Stein Friedrich, 1972) four weeks in a row were demonstrated daily to preschoolers as a program of preparation for school episodes from the television series "Neighborhoods Mister Rogers" Educational program aimed at the social and emotional development of children). During the whole period, children were more likely to cooperate with others and help them. In surveys held later, those children who at one time viewed the four TV programs "Mr. Rogers" turned out to be able to express their prospective mood both in tests and in games with dolls (FRIEDRICH Stein, 1975; Coates Others, 1976).

Concepts for memorization

Catharsis (Catharsis) - Emotional discharge. The internal impulse to aggression weakens when a person "releases" aggressive energy either by aggressive actions, or creating imaginary pictures of its aggressive behavior.

Prosocial Behavior - positive, constructive, socially useful behavior; Direct opposite of antisocial behavior.

Exploring social psychology

Learning social psychology

David Myers is a world-famous psychologist. Myers's book is a masterpiece of teaching art: in a fascinating form, the reader meets with the science of human behavior in society, quickly and reliably remembers the concepts, facts, theories, studies methods and experiments. The academic course of social psychology, set forth in this book, is absorbed effectively and easily.

David Myers - Professor of Psychology of Michigan Hope College. He is one of those teachers whom students themselves call "outstanding." Myers loves to teach, and all his works written for a wide audience are imbued with this passion. He publishes articles in twenty magazines and wrote himself and collaborates about a dozen of popular books - among them "The Pursuit of Happiness" (Avon, 1993) and "The American Paradox" (Yale University Press, 2000).

Myers's research activities received a high assessment: for labor on group polarization, the ninth section of the American Psychological Association awarded him a prestigious prize of Gordon Allport. Myers scientific articles are printed in more than 20 magazines, including "science", "American Scientist", "Psychological Science" and "American Psychologist". OverworkAcakeC-Consultant Consultant "Journal of Experimental Social Psychology" and "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology".

David Myers, David Myers, is headed by the Commission on Humanitarian Relations in his hometown, with its help, founded the city center for public assistance providing support to low-income families; The lectures of the scientist sound in numerous university and religious audiences. David and Carol Myers Three children: two sons and daughter.

Preface to the Russian publication

The express trend of the last time for those who study at the highest school, and for those who teach there, is to enter the light of domestic publications of foreign textbooks, widely known in many countries. To the category of such work belongs to this book of David Myers. This name is undoubtedly familiar with the reader interested in social psychology. The publication of the textbook of Meers "Social Psychology", carried out several years ago in St. Petersburg, was the first domestic edition of this kind. The new work of Myers "Learning social psychology" ("Exploring Social Psychology") also represents a textbook on this discipline. However, it should be emphasized that this is a large other book.

What is the difference between this work of Myers from the one who already, maybe the sign of our reader? The first thing that rushes into the eyes when compared is one textbook two times less by volume than the previous book of Myers. And this is undoubtedly able to please any student during the preparation for the exam. But this is not the main thing.

The specific responsibility of this book is its form. The former, almost 700-page (in the domestic edition), the textbook of Meers not only "compressed", but is integrated into a series of written alive, far from the language of small partitions. At the same time, a well-known position is fully confirmed: a real professional can tell about the subject of its interest as much as possible and, on the contrary, however briefly. It all depends on the specific situation.

What are the characteristic features of this textbook? It should be noted that his author is a psychologist in his education and for many years various psychological disciplines are teaching. Why is it important? We will remind the reader that since the beginning of the 20th century, social psychology began to develop within two sectors of scientific knowledge - psychology and sociology. Various representatives and one and other science include (so far) social psychology in "its" knowledge system. Therefore, social psychology as science acquires the corresponding "emphasis" depending on whether the psychological or sociological foundation is based on research analysis. In this case, Myers acts as a consistent psychologist, the focus of which is not a society (like a sociologist), but a person who has in various situations and exposed to these situations. The content of this book fully covers the main problem of modern American social psychology. Not only research recognized by classical and have a great impact on the subsequent development of science, but also the work of recent times, expanding the horizon of socio-psychological knowledge. Such, for example, studies of gender problems, various aspects of love and happiness.

Since social psychology is a humanitarian science, it always matters its own position of the author on the relationship between the individual and society. The conclusion that Myers comes on the last page of his book is that "we ourselves are the creators of our social worlds." In addition to this thought, he emphasizes that we are ourselves "morally responsible for how to use the freedom-given us." The materials of the research presented in the new book of Myers, one way or another confirm these conclusions. With a full basis, it can be said that the textbook of Myers not only enriches the reader with new knowledge, but also carries a certain humanistic morality, emphasizing the value of each personality, its role and responsibility in a choice situation.

The author of this preface is a special pleasure to recommend this book to our readers even because it has the honor to consist together with Professor Myers in the same SPSSI scientific organization (The Social Issues) - society of psychological research of social problems. In the governing lot of this society, which founded in 1936 in the US, Kurt Levin, David Myers works for a long time and very fruitful.

In conclusion, we note that the textbook of Myers attracts not only rich research material, but also a clear form, the logic of argumentation, a bright language that did not sweat due to a good translation. This book can be interesting to both students, graduate students, novice psychologists and highly pipe experts. Each category readers will find a lot of useful for themselves here. The new book of Professor Myers will undoubtedly take a worthy place in a number of educational publications on social psychology.

A. L. Swencitsky

professor, Head of the Department of Social Psychology

St. Petersburg State University

St. Petersburg, September 2000

Preface

Undoubtedly, social psychology is an academic discipline with its history, heroes, theories, techniques and jargon. But in the best manifestations, this science studies the soul of society and keeps his hand on the pulse of all mankind. In recent years, it gradually goes to the central positions. Before social psychology was watched as a secondary dickey, rather closest to cultural anthropology, than to practical and versatile experimental psychology, the fact that with proud stigs "Made in the United States" dominated psychology at least until the 60s. And if the cognitive psychology has returned the concept of human consciousness into science, then social psychology has loaded people in a lively social context. When, in other areas of psychology, scientists also realized that in order to understand the patterns of thinking, feelings and actions of a person, it is important to know his social environment and interpersonal dynamics, then there was also social aspects in research. As a result, we have social knowledge, social learning, social evolution, social theory of personality and many other border disciplines enriching our understanding of human essence. And although we are traditionally accustomed to say that the focus of psychological research is a separate personality, the picture becomes much more exciting if a person is considered as part of a complex social tissue.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Social Psychology
Social psychology and related disciplines
Social psychology and human values
The phenomenon "So I knew!" Is it possible to put a sign of equality between social psychology and common sense?
How social psychologists work
Part I. Social Thinking
Chapter 2. I am in the social world
I-concept: who am I?
Required self-control
Predisposition in favor of my
Self Preventation
Chapter 3. Social beliefs and judgments
How we explain the actions of others
Construction of interpretations and memories
How do we judge around
Self-realizable beliefs
Chapter 4. Behavior and Installation
Does the installations define the behavior
Does the installation behavior determines?
Why docts affect installation
Part II. Social influence
Chapter 5. Genes, Culture and Gender
Human nature and cultural differences
Gender differences and similarities
Evolution and Gender: do what is destined in nature?
Culture and floor
Chapter 6. Conformism
Classic research
When does conformism manifest?
Why is conformism manifest?
Who manifests conformism?
Social pressure resistance
Chapter 7. Belief
Methods of belief
The term convictions
Examples of research in the area of \u200b\u200bpersuasive impact: as sects recruit supporters
Resistance to conviction: Installation Vacation
Chapter 8. Influence of the Group
What is a group
Social facilitation
Social lane
Definoidalization
Group polarization
Library thinking
Minority influence
Part III. Social relations
Chapter 9. Prejudice: Antipathy to others
Nature and Power of Prejudice
Social sources of prejudice
Emotional sources prejudice
Cognitive sources of prejudice
Chapter 10. Aggression: Harm to others
What is aggression?
Theories of aggression
Factors provoking aggression
Weakening of aggression
Chapter 11. Attraction and proximity, friendship and love
friendship
Love
Maintaining close relationships
Completion of relationships
Chapter 12. Altruism: Help others
Why do people help each other?
When do we help each other?
Who do we help?
How to make help more common phenomenon?
Chapter 13. Conflict and reconciliation
Conflict
Reconciliation

Modules. Applied social psychology
Module A. Social Psychology in the Clinic
How clinical psychologists make their judgments
Social knowledge and problem behavior
Socio-psychological approach to treatment
Social support and well-being
B. Module Social Psychology and Justice
Testimony of witnesses
Other sources of influence on judgments
Jury as individuality
Jury jury as a group
From the laboratory - to life: Real jury and imitation
Module V. Social Psychology and Reliable Future
Global crisis
Social psychology of materialism and moderation
On the way to reasonable consumption
GLOSSARY

The book of an outstanding American psychologist David Myers "Social Psychology" does not simply tell about the fundamental truths of human relationships, but also offers the reader with real facts and results shown in examples from the life of real people. It will be useful to specialists from different fields of activity: lawyers, managers, psychologists and others.

David Myers and his story

It all started in 1966, when Myers became a master of humanitarian sciences, namely in the field of social psychology and a year later, was a full-fledged researcher with a doctoral degree in social psychology. Passed the entire teaching path in various universities of the United States from the senior teacher to Professor. Posted by almost 20 monographs, scientific works and textbooks on psychology. It consists of three national Associations of US psychologists. Currently continues to teach, conduct research and write books.

D. Myers "Social Psychology"

If you examine in detail the program of learning students of the Department of Psychology of any university, then there will be a course of social psychology in it, which is mainly taught in the textbook Myers "Social Psychology". In the book, the author introduces the reader to social psychology, describes all the foundations, terms, etc. Further, in four chapters, he tells about social thinking, behavior, belief and judgment. In "Social Psychology", information about the nature of man, genes, culture, gender, and the influence of all these factors on social activity and interaction with people are well presented. Research and scientific information on conformism and belief are presented in detail. Information about altruism, apathy, aggression and prejudice is also offered. On one chapter was given to loved ones, namely love and friendly, and also detailed the essence of conflicts and reconciliation.

Modules of "Social Psychology"

The "Social Psychology" Myers includes 13 large chapters with a huge number of scientific information 3 three modules. What it is, just tell me further.
All 13 chapters narrated about the theory, and the modules are the practical part of the textbook. They will teach the author to apply all theoretical knowledge in practice. Teach the problem to make a conclusion and summary. Describe in detail a person recommendations on the correction of a psychological problem M. T.

As from the Avtroa review, you can draw the following conclusions: After reading the Tutorial D. Myers "Social Psychology" and applying theoretical knowledge in practice, on recommendations and instructions from all modules, only improve the professional skills of each student, applicant, psychologist, sociologist, etc. d.