Socio-economic development of ancient Russia presentation. Socio-economic development of Russia
The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources. This is one of the reasons why the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable. The presence in the economy of various economic structures gives a basis for a number of experts to assess the Old Russian state as an early class state, in which the feudal structure existed along with the slaveholding and patriarchal ones.
Most scientists support the idea of \u200b\u200bacademician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began in the 9th century. leading trend in the socio-economic development of Ancient Russia.
Feudalism characterized by full ownership of the feudal lord on land and incomplete ownership of the peasants, in relation to whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion. The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his land plot, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of the tools of labor, housing, etc.
The beginning process of transformation of the tribal nobility into landowners in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Russia can be traced mainly only on archaeological material. These are the rich burials of boyars and vigilantes, the remains of fortified suburban estates (estates) that belonged to senior vigilantes and boyars. The class of feudal lords also arose by separating the most prosperous members from the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal land tenure was also facilitated by the direct seizure of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary communes on landowners.
Population categories
However, in the Kiev period, there remained a fairly significant number of free peasants, dependent only on the state. The very term “peasants” appeared in sources only in the XIV century. Sources of the period of Kievan Rus call the community members dependent on the state and the Grand Duke people , or smerds.
The main social cell of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - the rope. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the Vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the Vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the community's needs for handicraft products and worked mainly to order. The person who broke off ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called outcast.
FROMwith the development of feudal land tenure, various forms of dependence of the agricultural population on the landowner appear. The common name for a temporarily dependent peasant was purchase. This was the name of a person who received a kupa from the landowner - help in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and who was obliged to return or work the kupa with interest. Another term referring to addicted people is ryadovich , those. a person who has entered into a certain contract with the feudal lord is a row and is obliged to perform various works according to this row.
In Kievan Rus, along with feudal relations, there was patriarchal slavery, which, however, did not play a significant role in the country's economy. Slaves were called slaves or servants. First of all, prisoners fell into slavery, but temporary debt servitude became widespread, which ended after the payment of the debt. Serfs were usually used as domestic servants. In some estates there were also the so-called plowed slaves, planted on the land and having their own economy.
Patrimony
The main unit of the feudal economy was the patrimony. It consisted of a princely or boyar estate and dependent communities, the worms. The estate contained the owner's courtyard and mansions, bins and barns with "abundance", ie. supplies, servants' dwellings and other buildings. Various branches of the economy were in charge of special managers - tiuns and key keepers , at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was firemen. As a rule, artisans who served the aristocratic economy worked in the boyar or princely estate. Craftsmen could be slaves or be in some other form of dependence on the patrimonial land. The patrimonial economy had a natural character and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord and his servants. Sources do not allow one to judge unambiguously about the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the patrimony. It is possible that some part of the dependent peasants worked corvee, the other paid the landlord natural rent.
The urban population also became dependent on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans near cities. In order to attract the population, the village owners provided certain benefits, temporary tax exemptions, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called liberties or settlements.
The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of addicts. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - the transformation into a complete, "white" slave. Information on various manifestations of the class struggle is contained in Russkaya Pravda. It talks about violations of the boundaries of land holdings, setting fire to board trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, theft of property.
As a rule, twice a year, dependent peasants brought to their creditors or owners the agreed amount of grain, meat, fish, vegetables, poultry, and canvases.
An important phenomenon in the economic and political life of Ancient Rus was the appearance of a large number of cities. The main category of the population in them were artisans and merchants. At the initial stage of the existence of the Old Russian state, despite the strengthening of the power of the prince and boyars, the traditionally high role of free communities in rural areas and veche authorities in cities remained. The city veche, for example, was in charge of the issues of war and peace, announced the convening of the militia, sometimes it could even change the prince (especially if the functions of the prince were limited only to organizing the resistance to the enemy in case of war). However, the right to vote at veche meetings belonged to boyars, church hierarchs, wealthy townspeople and merchants.
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Presentation slides text content: History in the faces of Lenin, for his part, respected and emphasized not only the military, but mainly organizational talents ///////. It was evident, however, that this sometimes aroused some discontent and jealousy among Lenin's collaborators. Lenin probably appreciated the revolutionary temperament /////// and remembered his role in the preparation and implementation of the seizure of power in October 1917; in addition, everyone knew perfectly well that //////// actually created the Red Army and, thanks to his indefatigable energy and fiery temperament, ensured its victory over the white movement. “In 1918, the KGB detachments consisted of sailors and Latvians. One such sailor entered the office ///// drunk. He made a remark, the sailor in response laid a three-story one. ////// pulled out a revolver and, having put the sailor on the spot with several shots, immediately fell in an epileptic fit. " Boris Bazhanov, who worked in the secretariat ///// gave a very correct assessment of his character: "The main character traits ////// - firstly, secrecy, secondly, cunning, thirdly, vindictiveness. Never ////// does not share his innermost plans with anyone. Very rarely he shares his thoughts and impressions with others. He is silent a lot. In general, he does not talk unnecessarily. He is very cunning, in everything he thinks behind, and when he speaks he never speaks sincerely He never forgives offenses, he will remember for ten years and eventually get rid of "the minister, then the minister-chairman of the Provisional Government (1917), In June 1918 Kerensky, disguised as a Serbian officer, left the borders of the former Russian Empire. He died on June 11, 1970 at his home in New York from cancer at the age of 89. The local Russian Orthodox Church refused to perform the funeral service, believing it to be the culprit for the fall of Russia. The body was transported to London and buried in the en: Putney Vale Cemetery, which is not of any faith. According to our concepts, it is not the land that should own the person, but the person should own the land .... Until labor of the highest quality is applied to the land, labor is free, and not forced, our land will not be able to withstand competition with the land of our neighbors, and the land is Russia. On March 21, 1917, A. Kerensky, the new Minister of Justice, met in Tsarskoe Selo with the arrested ... ... Later, Kerensky remarked about his interlocutor: "Disarmingly charming man!" After the second meeting with the Tsar, Kerensky confessed: "But ... ... far from being stupid, contrary to what we thought about him." "Kerensky was fascinated by the friendliness that naturally radiated .... , and several times realized that he called him: "... ... ..." ". “You don’t think about what I said,” and he smiled slyly, “all you don’t understand is what the mulberry is about. But just remember: as long as I am alive, then they are alive, and if they kill me, then you will know what will happen, you will see, "he added mysteriously." (1859-1924) - Russian politician, leader of the Union party on October 17 (Octobrists); Chairman of the State Duma of the third and fourth convocations. One of the leaders of the February Revolution Emigrated in 1920 Died in Yugoslavia in 1924 Soviet political and statesman, revolutionary. Member of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) One of the organizers of the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly, the shooting of the royal family and decossackization (due to which hundreds of thousands of people died in the Don and Kuban), a Bolshevik, according to whom 90% of the Russian people did not care, if only 10% survived Before the world revolution. November 14, 1924, the Yekaterinburg City Council decided to assign the name of the revolutionary, the first chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee Viktor Chernov (1873, 1952, New York, USA) Leader of the party formed in 1902. He categorically did not accept the October Revolution. October 25 at 12 o'clock at the congress of peasant deputies of the Western Front called for a struggle against the Bolshevik government At the Constituent Assembly on January 5, 1918 ... .. was elected its chairman. During World War II he took part in the French Resistance Movement. Soon after the liberation of France, he left for the United States. ... .. owns numerous works on philosophy, political economy, history and sociology. Among those deported in the summer and autumn of 1922 (abroad and to remote regions of the country), the largest number were university teachers and, in general, persons of humanitarian professions. Out of 225 people: doctors - 45, professors, teachers - 41, economists, agronomists, cooperators - 30, writers - 22, lawyers - 16, engineers - 12, politicians - 9, religious leaders - 2, students - 34. government company RSFSR on the expulsion of people objectionable to the authorities abroad in September and November 1922. "Philosophical steamer" "Emigrant steamer" "Professorial steamer" "Let us cleanse Russia for a long time ..." The intelligentsia is not the brain of the nation, but shit, "V. Lenin wrote at one time ... Fyodor Ivanovich Chaliapin (February 13, 1873, Kazan - 12 April 1938, Paris) Russian opera singer (high bass), soloist of the Bolshoi Theater, People's Artist of the Republic (1918-1927, the title returned in 1991) in 1927 by a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR he was deprived of the title of People's Artist and the right to return to the USSR; this was justified by the fact that he did not want to "return to Russia and serve the people whose artist title was awarded to him" or, according to other sources, by the fact that he allegedly donated money to emigrants-monarchists. In 1984, his son achieved the reburial of his ashes in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery.
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Grade 10 The development of Russian society in the XI-XII centuries.
PLAN. Feudalism and its signs. Signs of feudalism in Russia. Social structure and main categories of the population. Cities, trade and crafts of Ancient Rus. The socio-economic role of the church organization. Army: structure and meaning. Social upheaval.
Feudalism and its signs. A feud (in Western Europe) is a hereditary land holding granted by a lord to a vassal on the condition of performing service or paying a certain amount. Feudal lord - people with property wealth and political power. Feudalism is a certain system of property and social relations, necessarily associated with land. Signs of feudalism: Ownership of feudal lords on land. Combination of supreme power with land ownership. The hierarchical structure of the class of feudal lords. Conditional nature of land ownership. Feudal obligations of dependent peasants. Natural economy. Slow development of science and technology.
Signs of feudalism in Russia Kievan Rus is an early feudal state. X-XI centuries - the formation of large patrimonial land tenure in Russia. ?? What is a fiefdom? A fiefdom is hereditary family or corporate ownership. ?? Who were the owners of the estates ?? "Feeding" is one of the conditions for keeping the land. ?? What is feeding? "Feeding" - the land was given to boyars and princes with the right to collect tribute from them into property, which was the "payment", a means of maintaining them.
Social structure of Ancient Rus IX-XII centuries Upper estates Clergymen (pagan magi, Orthodox clergy) Princes Boyars Druzhinniki Lower estates People (free peasants - commoners, smerds, purchases, ryadovichs) Serfs (debt servants, prisoners of war servants) City people (townspeople, merchants (guests), artisans)
Cities of Ancient Russia Cities arise as centers of Named reigns Crossing trade routes Departure of cults (tribal centers of tribes) X century - early XI century - 30 cities Mid XI century - first half of XIII century - 42 cities Mid XIII century - 62 cities Cities - centers of craft and trade
Trade and craft of Ancient Rus. Trade in Russia Export (export) Wax, furs, flax, leather, chain mail, locks, bone products Import (import) Expensive fabrics, weapons, church utensils, jewelry, precious stones, spices. CRAFT (more than 60 specialties) Jewelry and ornaments making Household items making Metal items (weapons, chain mail, locks)
The socio-economic role of the church organization. The Church is a social and powerful institution, the support of the central government. The church is a large landowner. Church tithe - a tax on the population (existed until the end of the 19th century). Tithe was first introduced by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. At the head of the Russian Church is the Metropolitan, subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. Bishops are the heads of other dioceses.
Army: structure and meaning. The squad is the core of the army, the most powerful and well-armed part of the army. "Regiment" - simple warriors from the peasants. Battle traditions: duels, tasks of "chela" and "wings" in battle. The use of mercenaries. Arming the army. The role of the people's militia.
Social upheaval. Princely strife. Peasant protests Why did the princely feuds begin? What are the reasons for the peasant uprisings?
REPEAT What is feudalism and what are its signs? What was the social structure of the society of Ancient Rus? What function did cities perform? What role did the church play? What is the structure of the Old Russian army? What caused the social upheavals in Ancient Russia?
Homework. Learn the outline.
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Socio-political development of ancient Russia
(features of the social-political system of Russia)
All society was divided according to the relation to the prince into 3 groups: 1) who personally served the prince; 2) for free - they did not serve personally, but paid tribute in the world - community; 3) served individuals. The estates have not yet taken shape. Basically there were free, semi-free and slaves (slaves). Slavery did not spread. Main the mass of the rural population is frozen. from the prince, was called "smerds". There were merchants and artisans. Among the vigilantes there is a detachment. naib. confidants - boyars who received land, a cat. could be inherited. Later, the nobles also appear - they receive land only for the duration of their service.
The lands of ancient Russia 11-13 centuries. (Novgorod; Vladimir-Suzdal; Pledsko-Volyn lands)
Mongol-Tatar invasion
In the spring of 1223hordes of nomads came to the Dnieper under the command of Genghis Khan. These were Mongol-Tatars. Their society was at the stage of the decline of military democracy during the transition to an early feudal monarchy. The nomadic army was distinguished by strict military discipline. For example, for the escape of one soldier from the battlefield, his entire dozen were executed, for the escape of a dozen, a hundred died.
The Mongol-Tatars came to the Dnieper to attack the Polovtsy, whose khan, Kotyan, turned for help to his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav Romanovich.
Thus, the Russians first met in battle with the invaders on r. Kalke May 31, 1223 First encountershowed:
1) the futility of the attempts of the Russian troops to help the allies;
2) lack of a unified organization;
3) the weakness of the command.
All together made the further battle with the invaders meaningless for the Russians.
In the winter of 1237mongol-Tatars under the command of Batu entered the territory of North-Eastern Russia. Their first victim was the Russian city of Kazan, then the invaders plundered Kolomna.
IN february 1238the capital of North-Eastern Russia, Vladimir, fell.
Nomads conquered Chernigov, and capital Kiev fell. The seizure of Russian cities was accompanied by inhuman cruelty, residents were killed, regardless of gender and age.
The war did not touch the Orthodox Church.
The conquerors did not interfere in the religious area of \u200b\u200bthe conquered countries. They did not take tribute from the monasteries. The Mongol-Tatars also sought to attract church leaders to their side.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in Russia: 1) Russia fell under the rule of the Horde protectorate.
Golden Horde - Ulus Jochi, a powerful state created by the Mongol khans. Its capital was Saray-Batu, which was located not far from modern Astrakhan; 2) the khan handed great reign labelVladimirskoe and controlled the situation throughout the territory. The label was a desirable target for Russian princes and a cause of feudal strife; 3) the conquerors encouraged feudal fragmentation in every possible way, pitting the descendants of Rurik against each other; four) the main form of addictionfrom the Horde was collection of tribute, "Horde exit".Khan officials (Baskaks) were engaged in it in Russia. Tribute was collected from the household. The actions of the Baskaks were distinguished by extreme cruelty. They took people prisoner and enumerated the entire population of North-Eastern Russia in 1257–1259. "Great Baskak" had a residence in Vladimir, where at that time the political center of the country practically moved.
The main reasons for the defeat of Russia and the establishment of the Horde yokewere:
1) the feudal fragmentation that existed at that time, since each principality found itself alone with the forces of the conquerors. Thus, the Russian princes were one by one defeated by the enemies;
2) Mongol-Tatars used advanced military equipment (stone throwers, battering machines, gunpowder);
3) the numerical superiority of the enemy.
Conquest results:towns and villages were burned, skilled artisans were taken into slavery, fields fell into disrepair, and Russia's foreign economic relations were disrupted for many years. The Mongol-Tatar conquest completed the history of Ancient Rus in 1240.
At the same time, the Mongol-Tatar conquest played the role of a catalyst during the division of territory and spheres of influence. This specific feature was also distinguished by the struggle between the Moscow and Tver principalities in a later period. As a result, the exploitation of the dependent population has increased locally.
The domination of the golden horde 13-14 centuries. forms of subordination of Russian Rus, the fight against the Mongol-Tatars
Formation of the Moscow invasion, collection of lands around Moscow 13-15 centuries.
Foreign policy
Formation of the ancient Russian state (9-10th centuries)
On the territory of our country in the 6-10th centuries. the Eastern Slavs lived: Vyatichi, Polyana and others. By the 10th century, a clan society was formed among the Eastern Slavs. Its formation ends with the formation of the ancient Russian state. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" in 862, Rurik was established in Novgorod. After his death, Oleg seized power in 879, and in 882, with the help of deception, he captured Kiev, which became the center of the united state. The ancient Russian state of the early feudal monarchy. The great prince stood at the head of the state, and his sons, brothers and warriors carried out the trial and collection of tribute. The main task of the country was to protect the border from the raids of nomads. In 991, Prince Oleg signed the first international treaty with Byzantium. The Old Russian state was significantly strengthened under the princes Igor and Svyatoslav, but the real dawn of Kievan Rus took place under Prince Vladimir I. Under him, all the lands of the Eastern Slavs were united into Kievan Rus. In 988, Vladimir adopted Christianity as a new state religion. The adoption of Christianity strengthened the state power and the territoriality of the unity of Kievan Rus. Rejecting primitive paganism, Russia became equal to other Christian countries
Socio-economic development of ancient Russia
In the IX-XII centuries. the economy of the Old Russian state is characterized as a period of early feudalism. This period is associated with the beginning of the emergence of the very foundation of relations between the state, feudal lords and agriculture. The most basic issues concerning the entire population, such as the production of products, the procedure for collecting taxes, and military service, are being resolved. After all, the core of the "Russian land" is agriculture, which occupies the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. It was based on arable farming. If we compare it with the primitive communal system, then at this time the farming technique was significantly improved. The cultivation of land in the southern part, where noble black earth plots prevailed, was carried out with a plow (or ral), in the north they used a plow. Agriculture played a primary role in the life of Ancient Rus, therefore, the sown fields were called life, and the main grain for each area was called rye (from the verb “to live”).
By the IX-X centuries. a transfer system appeared and began to be applied, in which arable land was abandoned for some time. The two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops became famous.
The old traditions of land cultivation have also been preserved in forest areas (slash or fire). Peasant farms had horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats and poultry.
A characteristic feature was the extent to which the commodity economy was developed, because practically everything necessary for life was produced. Crafts developed, the center of which, of course, became cities, but individual industries also developed in the villages. The leading role was played by ferrous metallurgy for the simple reason that Ancient Russia was rich in swamp ores, from which iron was extracted. All kinds of processing of iron were carried out, the manufacture of numerous things from it for the economy, military affairs and everyday life, while various technological methods were used: forging, welding, cementation, turning, inlaying with non-ferrous metals. However, along with metallurgy, a great impetus in the development of woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts took place.
Thus, metallurgy and agriculture are becoming a solid support and the main article of the economy of Kievan Rus.
In the IX-XII centuries. the economy of the Old Russian state is characterized as a period of early feudalism. This period is associated with the beginning of the emergence of the very foundation of relations between the state, feudal lords and agriculture. The most basic issues concerning the entire population, such as the production of products, the procedure for collecting taxes, and military service, are being resolved. After all, the core of the "Russian land" is agriculture, which occupies the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. It was based on arable farming. If we compare it with the primitive communal system, then at this time the farming technique was significantly improved. The cultivation of land in the southern part, where noble black earth plots prevailed, was carried out with a plow (or ral), in the north they used a plow. Agriculture played a primary role in the life of Ancient Rus, therefore, the sown fields were called life, and the main grain for each area was called rye (from the verb “to live”).
By the IX-X centuries. a transfer system appeared and began to be applied, in which arable land was abandoned for some time. The two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops became famous.
The old traditions of land cultivation have also been preserved in forest areas (slash or fire). Peasant farms had horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats and poultry.
A characteristic feature was the extent to which the commodity economy was developed, because practically everything necessary for life was produced. Crafts developed, the center of which, of course, became cities, but individual industries also developed in the villages. The leading role was played by ferrous metallurgy for the simple reason that Ancient Russia was rich in swamp ores, from which iron was extracted. All kinds of processing of iron were carried out, the manufacture of numerous things from it for the economy, military affairs and everyday life, while various technological methods were used: forging, welding, cementation, turning, inlaying with non-ferrous metals. However, along with metallurgy, a great impetus in the development of woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts took place.
Thus, metallurgy and agriculture are becoming a solid support and the main article of the economy of Kievan Rus.
Ticket 4.
The most important event carried out by Prince Vladimir (980-1015) was the religious reform.
Carrying out a religious reform, Prince Vladimir strove to strengthen the state, consolidate the collapsing inter-tribal union and preserve the dominant position of the Kiev nobility in it.
There have been 2 attempts at religious reform:
1) the pagan reform of 980, which did not solve the tasks assigned to it. Its essence was to collect all the gods, who were worshiped by various tribes, and to compose in Kiev a pantheon, obligatory for the entire state;
2) the introduction of Christianity (988).
Historians name various reasons for Vladimir's conversion to Christianity. According to a number of scholars, during the baptism of Rus, Vladimir was guided not only by considerations of state benefits. He turned to Christianity sincerely. Perhaps as a result of repentance for the atrocities committed (the murder of Yaropolk's brother, who reigned in Kiev, and the seizure of the Kiev throne), fatigue from a riotous life (Vladimir spent a lot of time in noisy drinking at the banquet table and in the chambers of his numerous wives and slave-concubines), feelings of spiritual emptiness. Having become a Christian, Vladimir also baptized Russia. This decision was also influenced by the desire of the Kiev prince to strengthen the foreign policy position of Russia. In any relations with Christian states, the pagan state inevitably turned out to be an unequal partner, with which Vladimir did not want to put up.
The people of Kiev, among whom there were many Christians, accepted the transition to the "Greek faith" without obvious resistance. Residents of the southern and western cities of Russia, who often communicated with other religions and lived in a multilingual, multi-tribal environment, reacted calmly to baptism.
Religious innovations met with much greater resistance in the north and east. Thus, the Novgorodians rebelled against the bishop Joachim (991) who was sent to the city, who ridiculed pagan beliefs. To conquer them, Vladimir sent troops led by Dobrynya and Putyata: "Putyata baptized with a sword, and Dobrynya with fire." Residents of Murom refused to let the son of Vladimir, Prince Gleb, into the city, and declared their desire to preserve the religion of their ancestors. Similar conflicts arose in other cities of the Novgorod and Rostov lands.
Reasons for the resistance of the northern cities to Christianization:
A religious pagan organization was formed there (regular and stable rituals, separate groups of priests - magi, magicians);
A wary attitude of Novgorodians and Rostovites to all orders coming from Kiev.
However, Christianity was far from immediately established in the minds of people, especially in the villages. Throughout the centuries, the dual faith of Russia persisted: the Christian faith was combined with faith in the former pagan gods. In an effort to facilitate the adoption of Christianity by the Slavs, the church consecrated some pagan holidays. So, the Shrovetide holiday is pagan in origin. The holiday of Ivan Kupala, which marked the arrival of summer, merged with the day of St. John the Baptist. The worship of the Thunderer Perun was replaced by the veneration of Elijah the Prophet, St. Blasius became the patron of cattle instead of Veles. These beliefs have become firmly established in Russian Christianity.
The meaning of the adoption of Christianity in Russia:
2) The way of life of people has changed.
3) The Church has banned sacrifices, polygamy, blood feuds and other pagan traditions.
4) Mastering the Byzantine cultural heritage. Development of culture, creation of monuments of writing.
5) The international position of the Old Russian state has changed. It joined the general row of Christian states in Europe. The prince needed a religion capable of strengthening the princely power. (example Byzantium).
6) It is impossible to hold all the Slavic lands relying only on military force.
Ticket 5.
International relations of Kievan Rus IX-XI centuries. (article)
International relations in Russia as an integral part and instrument of foreign policy appeared and developed simultaneously with the birth and formation of the Russian state, the history of which dates back to the formation of Kievan Rus in the 9th century. By about half of the 9th century. external and internal relations in the commercial and industrial world of Russian cities have developed in such a combination, in which the protection of the country's borders and foreign trade became their common interest, subordinating them to the prince of Kiev and making the Kiev Varangian principality the grain of the Russian state. In the vastness of Eastern Europe, a new leading political force began to take shape - the Old Russian state, or Russia, as it was called at that time.
Kievan Rus - this is how historians call the state of the ancient Slavs from the 9th to the 11th centuries. with the center in the city of Kiev. But the concept of Kievan Rus includes not only the city of Kiev with the surrounding lands, but also all the cities and settlements of the Eastern Slavs - the ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians.
Until the XII century. the borders of Kievan Rus were not clearly marked. And if in the north and south they were determined by the geographical boundaries of the White and Black Seas, then in the west and especially in the east they were very conditional. At the same time, part of the borders in the west could still be considered more or less definite, since they separated Kievan Rus from the previously formed states - Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic. There were no delimitations along the rest of the perimeter. Russia was surrounded by the lands of peoples and tribes that were at a lower stage of development, which did not have their own statehood, or knew only its initial forms.
According to historians (S.F. Platonov, I.Ya. Froyanov, V.O.Klyuchevsky and others), the objects of foreign policy and external relations of Kievan Rus were in total about four dozen different states, principalities, unions and tribes, of which about a third were Western European monarchies and empires, almost fifteen hundred were Russian principalities, and the rest were small nationalities and tribes. The overwhelming majority of neighboring non-Slavic peoples were in one or another vassal dependence on Russia and paid tribute to it. Others, such as the Varangians and Ugrians, Kievan Rus paid tribute itself. In accordance with this, various functions of ancient Russian international relations were determined: one in relation to neighboring small peoples that did not have their own statehood, the other in relation to already formed states.
So, for example, relations with the mighty Byzantium developed in a special way. A notable milestone in the development of international relations was the direction in 838 of the Russian embassy to Constantinople. For the first time, Russia was represented at the court of the Byzantine emperor Theophilos as a state. The main goal of the Russian embassy was to establish direct contacts with the central government of Byzantium. The well-known historian Shakhmatov A.A., who devoted almost half his life to studying the history and chronicles of Kievan Rus, testifies that recent opponents were welcomed in Byzantium. The embassy was given a worthy welcome, as evidenced by the attention shown to it by the supreme power, who took care of its safety and food supply, as well as the length of its stay in the Greek capital, which fully corresponded to the plans of the Empire (it hoped to turn Russia into allies in the fight against their longtime enemy - the Arab Caliphate).
However, the embassy did not lead to the solution of fundamental issues of relations between the two states. The powerful Byzantine Empire did not recognize the emerging Old Russian state. An important role in the formation of Russian statehood, the development of the diplomatic system of Rus, the expansion of its external relations and the rise of prestige were played by the negotiations that took place after the successful attack of the Russians on Constantinople in 860, and the first peace treaty in the history of Ancient Rus on "peace and love" concluded with Byzantine Empire. For the first time the Russian army laid siege to Constantinople, this richest city, where there were huge values. Russia, previously content with local attacks on Byzantine possessions and the conclusion of private agreements with imperial officials, achieved negotiations with the Greeks at the walls of Constantinople.
According to the historian B.D. Grekov, it was this fact that changed the nature of relations between Byzantium and Kievan Rus. In the course of negotiations with Constantinople, the Russians, step by step, mastered the complex diplomatic arsenal of the Empire, while creating their own foreign policy stereotypes. They managed to ensure that Byzantium treated its partner as a sovereign entity and recognized Russia as a new East Slavic state. According to the terms of the treaty, peaceful relations were established between the two states, payment by the Empire of tribute to Kievan Rus, as well as an agreement on the baptism of Rus. The Christian Greek mission was admitted to Russia. The treaty included, in addition, the allied obligation of Kievan Rus in relation to Byzantium. Thus, the beginning of the withdrawal of Russia from the zone of isolation, in which the East Slavic tribes found themselves after the attack of the Avars, and later in connection with the dependence on the Khazars, was laid.
As noted by most famous historians such as A.A. Shakhmatov, V.T. Pashuto, V.O. Klyuchevsky, B.D. Grekov and others, the external activities of the first Kiev princes were mainly directed by economic interests. And this activity was aimed at two main goals: 1) to acquire overseas markets, 2) to clear and protect the trade routes that led to these markets.
The main thing that ancient Russian diplomacy sought in the sub-vassal territories was to preserve the internal structure of power and the development of trade, and later to spread Christianity.
The situation was different with the neighboring states, with which the “Rurik power” sought to establish beneficial ties. Oleg (882 - 912) ruled, “having peace to all countries” (from The Tale of Bygone Years). Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980 - 1015) had good relations with the rulers of Hungary and Bohemia. Kievan Rus maintained especially close ties with Poland. Both states, despite their disagreements over Prussia, refused to participate in hostile coalitions and managed to come to a close alliance, sealed and confirmed by a series of treaties. Stable international relations have developed in Kievan Rus with the states of the Volga region - Bulgaria and Khazaria, in the Caucasus - with Dagestan; in the north - with the Scandinavian countries - Sweden and Denmark. Occasionally interrupted by conflicts, these relations were invariably renewed and strengthened by dynastic alliances with the subsequent growth of mutual political and trade benefits. International contacts with distant countries - Germany, France, England and Italy - were less regular and stable.
Trade relations of Kievan Rus were also lively. They stretched from Flanders to the Ugra land and from Scandinavia to Constantinople. Rooks with wax, honey, furs and other items of export were usually equipped for overseas voyages in Kiev or the cities closest to it on the Dnieper. Russian merchants were well known in the East, in Central and Northern Europe. Their overland caravans carried their goods to Baghdad and India. Russian military-trade expeditions went along the Black Sea to Bulgaria and Byzantium.
In an effort to consolidate the diplomatic success of the Russians, the Kiev prince Oleg again sent in 911 to Constantinople "his husbands", who upon arrival in the capital were received by the ruling emperors Leo VI and his brother Alexander. At the 911 embassy conference, the negotiations ended with the signing of an extensive general political agreement, in which, for the first time, specific articles of relations between the two states in the legal, economic, political and military fields were fixed in writing. Under the treaty, the Empire received, in particular, the right to accept Russian warriors for service.
Russia, connected with Byzantium by allied obligations, undertook a campaign in the regions of the Southern and South-Western Caspian regions in 912. Sakharov A.N. in his work "Diplomacy of Ancient Rus" notes that a successful offensive was made possible largely due to the diplomatic efforts of the Russians, who managed to ensure the "transit" of the squad across the territory of Khazaria. Later, Russian diplomacy more than once used the Pechenegs, Alans and other peoples of the North Caucasus in various political combinations in the east.
In 944, Kievan Rus, wishing to achieve complete equality with Byzantium, undertook a new military campaign against Constantinople and again achieved success. The Byzantine government, through its diplomats, promised the Grand Duke Igor to pay tribute under the previous agreement. Moreover, it sent an official embassy to Kiev with the aim of working out the terms of a new treaty, where, according to the chronicle, Igor "spoke with them about peace." Then the Russian embassy went to Constantinople, where negotiations with the Greek "bolyars and dignitaries" were continued. So, for the first time in the Russian practice of international relations, the form of sending a response embassy was used.
Having organized a farewell audience for the Greeks, the Russians adopted the diplomatic experience of not only Byzantium, but also international practice. The treaty on peace, friendship and military alliance was not mutually beneficial, although some of its articles are permeated with a spirit of compromise. Russia reaffirmed its political and commercial status in Byzantium, but lost an important duty-free trade right. At the same time, she achieved official recognition of her influence on the northern shores of the Black Sea, and in particular at the mouth of the Dnieper. A great success of the Russians was the fact that the title "lordship" disappeared from the treaty, which put the Kiev prince on a par with insignificant rulers. Igor was titled as the “Grand Duke of Russia”, which indicated the rise of his political prestige in the eyes of the Empire and among the Eastern European states.
The high art of strengthening international relations was shown after the death of her husband, Grand Duke Igor, by Princess Olga, who combined all the qualities of an intelligent and rare empress (890 - 969). In an effort to further enhance the authority of the grand ducal power and raise the prestige of Russia, she decided to receive the rite of baptism in Byzantium. To this end, Olga went to Constantinople at the head of a large and magnificent embassy.
On September 9, 957, she was assigned an audience with the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Having studied the chronicles of those times, A.A. Shakhmatov came to the conclusion that the princess's reception was fully consistent with the ceremonial of other foreign rulers. The atmosphere in the palace was extremely solemn and pompous; the whole court was present during the reception. After that, some deviations from the rules were made for the princess. Olga, unaccompanied, approached the throne and talked with the emperor while standing, and did not prostrate before him, as it was supposed to and as her retinue did. Soon the Grand Duchess was invited to a meeting with the imperial family, during which a conversation took place with the emperor, for the sake of which she arrived in Constantinople. In the family circle, Olga was honored to sit in the presence of the emperor, which was considered a high privilege, which was granted only to crowned heads.
In a conversation with Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, Olga discussed the procedure for the upcoming ceremony of baptism. Soon she was baptized in the presence of the emperors Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Roman in the main temple of Constantinople and received the blessing of the Patriarch Polyeuctus.
Thus, the years of Olga's reign were characterized by the expansion of international relations of Kievan Rus: relations with Byzantium were strengthened, embassies were exchanged with the German emperor, and trade relations of Kievan Rus were significantly expanded.
The issues of the state prestige of Russia, the expansion of its international relations continued to be constantly in the focus of attention of the Kiev rulers. The strengthening and expansion of international relations was achieved in different ways: at the cost of political deals and concessions, or with the help of military force. Sometimes the enemy was openly notified of the war, but more often the war was prepared secretly, and the military correspondence was conducted in secret. The diplomacy of that time was by no means primitive; it bore the stamp of its time. The means, methods and forms used by it were improved as the state was becoming (V.T. Pashuto).
Already in those distant times, participating in campaigns against the Arabs and Normans who threatened the allied Byzantium, Russia did not forget about its own interests, strengthened its influence not only in the Caucasus, but also in the Mediterranean Sea, influencing the German-imperial struggle for Italy. The attempt of the Greeks to push the nomads against Russia also ended in failure. Pushing back Byzantium, the Russians managed to keep the forest-steppe border and take control of the policy towards nomads, turning the Khazars, Pechenegs, Torks and a significant part of the Polovtsians into their allies. They used oaths, bribery and distribution of border lands, organization of magnificent receptions for ambassadors, gifts, etc. Quite a few Polovtsian girls - "Khatuns", having adopted Orthodoxy, became Russian princesses. Widely using diplomacy in international relations with other countries, the Russians also retained their positions on the main trade routes along the Volga, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Sereti and Lower Danube.
And in conclusion, it must be said that in the complex system of international relations of Kievan Rus, marriage unions occupied an important place. So, Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054) was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf Ingigerde, his eldest daughter Elizabeth was married to the Norwegian king Harald, the middle - Anna - to the French king Henry I, after whose death she became regent of France; the younger Anastasia - for the Hungarian king Andrew. Russian princesses left a noticeable mark on the political life of Poland, Lithuania and other countries. In turn, Russian princes, seeking to strengthen relations between Russia and foreign states, often took girls from the royal and royal families as wives.
Thus, summing up my report on the topic "International relations of Kievan Rus IX-XI centuries." I would like to note that the princes of the ancient Russian state in every possible way sought to expand the borders of their state, to strengthen political and economic ties, and, most importantly, to develop trade relations with overseas markets.
Ticket 6.
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