Self-hypnosis and its effect on the body are mental phenomena during self-hypnosis. On the nature of psychological phenomena Mental phenomena

13.03.2020

The philosophical term "phenomenon" comes from the Greek "φαινόμενον", which means "appearing", "rare fact", "unusual phenomenon". If you look around, you can see many objects, smell, warm or cold, see beauty and admire it, hear music and be delighted with its melodious sounds. All these objects and phenomena in philosophy are usually called this term. In short, they are all phenomena. These are philosophical concepts that designate those phenomena that can be comprehended in sensory experience. All of them can become objects of contemplation and scientific observation.

Types of phenomena

Based on the foregoing, these objects and phenomena can be divided into physical and mental. According to the theory of the Austrian philosopher Franz Brentano, the first include sounds, smells, natural landscape, precipitation, fields, forests, mountains and valleys, trees and shrubs and other objects of the world around us. All of them are given to us in experience, that is, we have the ability to see, hear, touch and feel. But mental phenomena are all of our mental activity, that is, all those representations that, through sensations or imagination, arise in our consciousness. These include acts of hearing, imagining, seeing, sensing, fantasizing, and also such as recollection, doubt, judgment; emotional experiences: joy, sadness, fear, hope, despair, courage, cowardice, love, anger, hatred, surprise, desire, excitement, admiration, etc.

Cultural phenomenon

The word "culture" has a great variety of meanings. It is an object of knowledge of various sciences: philosophy, sociology, aesthetics, cultology, ethnography, political science, psychology, pedagogy, history, art history, etc. In a broad sense, culture is all human activity that can have a variety of manifestations. It includes all the ways and forms of self-knowledge and self-expression that have been accumulated by society, and even by an individual. In a narrow sense, culture is a set of codes (norms of behavior, rules, stereotypes, customs and rituals, etc.), accepted in a given society, and which govern human behavior. In a word, culture is material and on our planet the first of them have a special meaning only for humans, since they are sanctified by customs, art, religion, in a word, culture. As for spiritual values, everything is not so simple here. We have already witnessed more than once that our smaller brothers are able to show such feelings as devotion, love, affection, joy, sadness, resentment, gratitude, etc., etc.

Culture and society

In the socio-cultural context, the concept of “phenomenon” receives the status of a category. This is a phenomenon that is explored in culture. Today it is increasingly becoming the object of various scientific works: dissertations, reports, diploma and term papers. However, it is extremely difficult for their authors to give an exact definition of this phenomenon. Everyone interprets it differently. The combination of such two concepts as "society" and "culture" is ubiquitous. Culture participates or is present in almost all spheres of human life without exception. Our vocabulary constantly includes such expressions as “socio-cultural space”, “cultural policy”, “culture of the individual”, etc. Many of these concepts have become so familiar to us that we do not even notice how often we use them. So how to understand the phenomenon of culture? This is, first of all, a special way of human life activity, where the objective and the subjective act as a single whole. Through culture, the organization and regulation of human life takes place, which leads to an increase in the level of his activity as a member of society.

Sociocultural in the works of Petyrim Sorokin and F. Tenbrook

P. also investigated this phenomenon. According to him, a sociocultural phenomenon is everything that people receive from their environment due to their connection with culture, which, in turn, is the bearer of “supra-organic” values. By the latter, he understood everything that produces, for example, it can be languages, religion, philosophy, art, ethics, law, manners, habits, etc., etc. In one word, according to Sorokin, “socioculturalism” is basic a category of the social world, which implies the indissolubility of personality, culture and society. And the German philosopher F. Tenbrook called this connection “seamless connection” of three components: the individual, society and the system of moral and material values, that is, culture.

What can be considered a socio-cultural phenomenon?

Let's first list those phenomena that fall under the definition. This is a whole set of concepts that affect a person living in a society of his own kind. Of course it is not full list, but here are some of them:

And this is a list of socio-cultural phenomena. It is more extensive. These phenomena are cultural and social phenomena combined into one whole. Here they are:

education;
the science;
politics;
tourism;
spirituality;
corporality;
education;
a family;
fashion;
brand;
religion;
myth, legend;
confidence;
happiness;
grief;
legal validity;
motherhood;
tolerance;
kitsch, etc.

The list goes on and on.

Sociocultural phenomenon of development

In our world, nothing is permanent and does not stand still. All phenomena are either improved or destroyed, moving towards their final death. Improvement is a sociocultural developmental phenomenon. It is a process aimed at positively changing both material and spiritual objects with one single goal - to become better. It is known from the course of philosophy that the ability to change is a universal property of both matter and consciousness. This is the principle of existence common to all (nature, cognition and society).

Personality as a psychological phenomenon

A being that possesses that is, a living person is a person. It has a very complex structure, which is an integral systemic formation, a set of actions, relationships, significant, from the point of view of society, mental properties of the individual, which were formed as a result of ontogenesis. They define his actions and deeds as the behavior of the subject of communication and activity, which has consciousness. The personality is capable of self-regulation, as well as dynamic functioning in society. Moreover, its properties, relationships and actions interact harmoniously with each other. Surely everyone is familiar with such an assessment of personality as the “core”. This property is endowed with those individuals who have a strong character. However, in psychology, the "core" formation of the personality is explained differently - it is his self-esteem. It is built on the basis of the relationship of the individual to himself. It is also influenced by how a person evaluates other people. In the traditional understanding, a person is an individual who acts as a subject of social (social) relations and spiritual activity. This structure also includes the physical and physiological characteristics of the human body, as well as its psychological characteristics. Thus, in addition to social and sociocultural phenomena, there is a psychological phenomenon. These are the phenomena that relate to the individual and his inner world: feelings, emotions, experiences, etc. So, a psychological phenomenon can be love, hatred, aggression, sympathy, manipulation, etc.

Conclusion

Regardless of which category they belong to, phenomena are everything that can become an object of observation for the purpose of cognition.

Mental reflection has its own characteristics: firstly, it is not a dead, mirror one-directional reflection, but a complex, constantly changing process, in which any external influences are refracted through the previously formed features of the psyche, through specific states of a person; secondly, it is based on material neurophysiological processes and is the result of higher nervous activity; thirdly, it is always a correct, true reflection of reality.

Especially when studying the topic, one should pay attention to the fact that the psyche is the result of the development of living matter, which arose at a certain stage of development of living organisms and went through several stages of development. The highest stage of development of the psyche is human consciousness.

The essential signs (features) of consciousness include the following:

Reflection of reality through aggregate knowledge, i.e. through generalized human experience.

Anticipation of events, awareness of the purpose of the activity, i.e. anticipation of the future result of activity, its mental modeling.

Generalized reflection essential, natural connections of reality.

The relationship between individual and social consciousness.

Self-awareness as a system of individualized value orientations.

When forming consciousness, a person realizes his attitude:

¾ To the material world of things and phenomena;

¾ To other people, members of his society;

¾ To oneself as a person and a member of society.

One of the forms of consciousness is legal awareness. In the broadest sense of the word, legal consciousness is understood as the entire legal experience of the behavior of an individual, group, society. Legal consciousness is subdivided into public, group, individual. The highest level of legal awareness is characterized by a set of views on the legal system, awareness of the social significance of law, assessment of its essence, mastery of legal ideology. Particular attention should be paid to the defects of legal consciousness - a negative attitude towards law, and the formation of legal behavior.

In general, knowledge of the laws of the psyche allows the police officer to more effectively organize his activities, correctly build relationships with other people, and understand the reasons for violations of norms in relationships. Psychological concepts underlie the original criminal law concepts (guilt, personality of the offender, goals and motives of the crime). Legal regulation is a form of social regulation.

The psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations. The main psychological phenomena exist in the form of processes, states and qualities, each of which can be individual and group, internal (mental) and external (behavioral).

The mental phenomena that provide the primary reflection and awareness of the impact of the surrounding reality by a person are mental processes. They are usually divided into: cognitive, emotional and volitional.

When studying cognitive processes, you must adhere to the following scheme:

1) the essence of this cognitive process, its definition;

2) physiological mechanisms of the cognitive process;

3) types (classification) of one or another cognitive process;

4) the patterns of this cognitive process and their manifestation in the activities of police officers.

Feeling is the initial cognitive process. It gives a person knowledge about the individual qualities of objects. More complex sensations are based cognitive processes: perception, memory, thinking. The physiological basis for sensations is the sense organs (analyzers are channels of communication with the external and internal environment). Each sense organ (analyzer) has a ring mechanism and specializes in receiving and processing various influences.

Classification of sensations... All sensations are divided into 3 main groups:

1) sensations of the properties of objects and phenomena that are outside of us: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and skin;

2) sensations of movement, position of parts of our body;

3) sensation of the state of internal organs - organic sensations.

An important question is the psychophysiological laws of sensations. These include: thresholds of sensations (lower, upper and middle, or differential), adaptation, sensitization, contrast of sensations, synesthesia. It is necessary to learn the essence of these patterns. Studying the various aspects of the sensory stage of cognition, it is necessary to establish their relationship to individual aspects of the activities of the police officers.

Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic manner. Perception images are built on the basis of various sensations, however, they are not reduced to their simple sum. Perception is associated with understanding and comprehending the image, with the verbal designation of surrounding objects. The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytic-synthetic activity of analyzers.

Perceptions are classified according to the modality of the receptors into visual, auditory, tactile. They can be complex and complex (visual-auditory, motor-visual, etc.). The complex types also include the perception of space and time.

Depending on the participation of the will in the process of perception, the latter is divided into involuntary and voluntary. Deliberate, systematic, specially organized perception is called observation; its effectiveness depends on the clarity of the goal, analysis and generalization of the observed phenomena.

The general patterns of perception are as follows:

1) constancy; 2) electoral focus; 3) objectivity; 4) meaningfulness and generalization; 5) integrity.

Cadets need to understand the essence of these patterns and their implementation in the activities of police officers.

Attention is a prerequisite for the effectiveness of all activities. This is the direction and concentration of consciousness, suggesting an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual. Direction manifests itself in selectivity. Depending on the object, forms of attention are distinguished: sensory (perceptual: visual and auditory), intellectual, motor (motor).

There are two main types of attention:

1. Involuntary attention (NV) arises and is maintained independently of a person's conscious intentions and goals. The main conditions for its occurrence can be attributed to the quality of stimuli, their novelty. NV cause stimuli corresponding to the needs. NV is associated with the general orientation of the personality (for example, a new theatrical poster will be noticed by a person interested in theater). Main function - fast and correct orientation in constantly changing environmental conditions, in the selection of objects that may have the greatest life meaning at the moment.

2. Voluntary attention (PV) consciously directed and regulated concentration. It develops on the basis of HB, and as the highest type of attention has developed in the process of labor. Main function - active regulation of the course of mental processes.

In addition, the concept of "post-voluntary attention" was introduced into psychology - when, in purposeful activity, the content and the process of activity itself, and not only its result, become significant and interesting for the individual. Activity is exciting, and a person does not need volitional efforts to maintain attention. It is characterized by prolonged high concentration, fruitful mental activity, fruitful mental activity.

Memory is the mental process of capturing, preserving, and reproducing traces of past experience. Closely related to perception and thinking. Traces from events and other stimuli can be imprinted for a short time - short-term memory, for a long time - long-term memory. From the point of view of the teachings of I.P. Pavlova, the neurophysiological basis of memory is the formation of temporary neural connections in the cerebral cortex.

There are two forms of memory - arbitrary and involuntary (the volume of arbitrary memory - 7 ± 2) - and memory processes - memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

Types of memory are subdivided into figurative and logical. Figurative memory, depending on the modality of the analyzer, can be visual, auditory and motor. Also known is emotional memory - the preservation and reproduction of feelings experienced by a person. It is important to discuss the phenomenon of eidetic memory.

Patterns of memory (conditions for successful memorization): significance of an event, novelty, emotional coloring, compliance with human needs; the influence of new information and the factor of reminiscence.

Individual differences in people's memory are manifested in the features of its processes, that is, in the fact that as memorization and reproduction in different people is carried out, and in the features of the content of memory, that is, in that what remembered.

Individual differences in memory processes are expressed in speed, accuracy, memorization strength and readiness for reproduction. The speed is determined by the number of repetitions required to memorize. Strength is expressed in the preservation of memorized material and in the speed of forgetting it. The readiness of memory is expressed in how easily and quickly a person can recall at the right moment what he needs. These differences are associated with the peculiarities of the types of GNI, with the strength and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition, and also change under the influence of living conditions and upbringing.

Knowledge and understanding of the patterns of memory helps to organize service activities more correctly. These patterns are taken into account during interrogations, interviews of citizens, when it is extremely important for an employee to obtain complete and reliable information.

Thinking arises when the surrounding reality requires a person to solve a problem. The police officer constantly has to solve various tasks. Consequently, knowledge of the features of mental activity will help to properly organize official activities. For this, in the process of studying the topic, it is necessary to master the essence of thinking as an indirect process, to understand the classification of the phenomena of thinking - mental operations; forms of thinking when solving problems; types of thinking - general patterns and individual characteristics of thinking. Its two main parameters: mediation and generalization. Thinking is a socially conditioned, inextricably linked mental process of searching and discovering something essentially new, a process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality in the course of its analysis and synthesis. Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity from sensory knowledge and goes far beyond its limits.

Types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract (theoretical)

Thinking is problematic because always aimed at solving a problem, while analysis and synthesis are continuously interacting, existing generalizations are used and new relationships are established. On this basis, a person predicts the development of events, builds hypotheses. Thinking forms the intellect of a person. Intelligence is the ability for abstract, abstract thinking.

Thinking is associated with language and speech. This is the difference between the human psyche and the animal psyche. In animals, thinking is always visual - effective. Only with the appearance of a word does it become possible to distract some property from the object being cognized and to fix this concept in the word. Thought reflects the material shell in the word.

Every thought arises and develops in connection with speech. The deeper the thought is thought, the more clearly it is expressed in the word and vice versa. Forming reflections out loud, a person formulates them for himself. Thanks to this, detailed reasoning becomes possible (comparison of thoughts that arise in the process of thinking).

Speech is the process of a person's use of language for the purpose of transferring and assimilating socio-historical experience or establishing communication or planning their actions.

Speech can be: monologic, dialogical, internal, written.

Functions of speech: speech has a multifunctional character, i.e. performs in various activities:

1. Communicative function (word is a means of communication);

2. Indicative (a word is a means of indicating an object);

3. Intellectual (the word is the bearer of generalization, concepts). All these functions of speech are internally related to each other.

Thinking is closely connected with imagination: the less data is available, the faster imagination is connected to the work of thinking. The essence of the imagination process is the process of transforming ideas, creating new images based on existing ones. Imagination, fantasy is a reflection of reality in new, unexpected, unusual combinations and connections.

Forms of imagination:

Agglutination - involves the gluing of various qualities, properties, parts that are not connected in everyday life.

Hyperbolization is not only an increase or decrease in an object, but also a change in the number of parts of an object or their displacement.

Sharpening, emphasizing any signs,

Schematization - if the representations from which the fantasy image is constructed merge, the differences are smoothed out, and the similarities come to the fore.

Typification - the selection of the essential, repeated in homogeneous facts and their embodiment in a specific image.

The physiological basis of imagination: the processes of imagination are of an analytic-synthetic nature - here there is a transformation of ideas, which ultimately ensures the creation of a model of a situation that is deliberately new, which has not previously appeared. This is due to the action of the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamic-limbic system.

Types of imagination:

Active imagination - using it, a person, of his own free will, by an effort of will, evokes the corresponding images in himself. Can be creative and re-creating.

Passive imagination is the creation of images that are not embodied and often cannot be realized. Dreams are images of fantasy, deliberately evoked, but not associated with the will aimed at translating them into reality - the connection between the products of fantasy and needs is revealed. Can be intentional or unintentional.

Imagination functions:

Representation of reality in images, to be able to use mime, solving problems.

Regulation of emotional states, relieving tension.

Arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes and human states.

Formation of an internal plan of actions - the ability to carry them out in the mind, manipulating images.

Planning and programming of activities, drawing up programs, assessing their correctness, the implementation process.

Sometimes something happens to people that goes beyond the usual. This does not mean that these phenomena are supernatural. It's just that science can't explain them yet. They are called mental phenomena. There are many varieties of such phenomena, and people study them with great interest. Many believe in them, others do not. Let's take a look at some of these phenomena. One of them is called "poltergeist". It is associated with strange sounds, movement of furniture, smashing dishes and other strange incidents that people who are in the apartment at that moment cannot explain. But for this to happen, the presence of a certain person is almost always necessary.

Even more interesting are the phenomena associated with the extraordinary abilities of the psyche of some people. In such cases, a person has knowledge about which he could not have learned in any natural way. For example, he can read the thoughts of another person or learn about an event that happened somewhere far away or very long ago.

Reading another person's thoughts (not guessing, but reading) is called telepathy.

Knowledge of some distant and ancient events is called clairvoyance. There have been many studies done to prove the existence or to demonstrate cases of telepathy, but many scientists argue that these experiments were not carried out correctly. Another interesting psychic phenomenon is called prediction. This is when people seem to know about the events that should happen in the future. People who do not believe in predictions may ask why these people do not get rich on the stock exchange or do not prevent crime.

In general, there is a double attitude to mental phenomena: some unconditionally believe in them, while others - among them there are many scientists - do not believe in them and believe that this cannot take place and, therefore, does not happen.

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abstract

bycourse: Psychologistsi am

on this topic:Mental Phenomenonus

Introduction

1. Sensual forms of cognition

2. Attention and its characteristics

3. Properties of memory

Conclusion

Introduction

From the point of view of the teachings of I.P. Pavlova, stimuli, signals entering the brain cause an orientation-exploratory reaction, the reflex "what is it?" At the same time, a person or an animal prepares for surprises, becomes attentive to what these surprises can be expected from.

1. Sensual forms of cognition

Sensations are a reflection of the properties of objects of the objective world, arising from their direct influence on human receptors.

Feelings are characterized by: quality - the difference between one type of sensation from another; intensity - the force of impact on the human sense organs; duration - the time during which the sensation continues; sensual tone - a feeling of pleasant or unpleasant.

Any sensation is caused by one or another stimulus that can be acting from the outside - color, sound, smell, taste; acting from within - hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation;

Awareness of a sensation arising under the influence of a particular stimulus is called sensitivity. In order for sensitivity to a stimulus to appear, it is necessary that it reach a certain intensity. The lowest intensity of the stimulus at which a barely noticeable sensation first occurs is called the lower threshold of sensation. The limit of the intensity of the stimulus, at which the change in the quality of sensation stops, is called the upper threshold of sensation.

Types of sensations:

1. By modality:

Skin,

Olfactory

Ш flavoring,

Auditory,

Visual, etc.

2. By the nature of the reflection and the location of the receptors:

Ш Exteroceptive. These are sensations that reflect the properties of objects or phenomena of the external environment and have receptors on the surface of the body.

Ш Interoceptive. These are sensations that have receptors located in internal organs and body tissues.

Ш Proprioceptive. These are sensations whose receptors are located in the muscles and ligaments.

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that occurs when physical stimuli are directly exposed to the receptors of the sense organs.

All perceived objects of the real world have properties such as color, smell, taste, have a certain size (length, width and thickness) and shape; are at a certain distance from a person as a subject of perception; have a certain volume, which creates depth and relief in their perception. The indicated properties of objects have a spatial character, and their reflection in human consciousness is the perception of space. The reflection in the human mind of the duration of movement and changes is the source of those perceptions, which are called the perception of time.

The representation of time, in contrast to the perception of time, characterizes the reproduction in consciousness of changes that once occurred earlier, which a person reproduces from memory. This reproduction is largely subjective, that is, it is associated with the individual characteristics of the personality. This property has a significant impact on the process of establishing the truth on the fact of a committed offense, since in the presence of several persons undergoing a criminal case, their testimonies may differ significantly.

Perception properties:

III Objectivity is a property that manifests itself in the attribution of images of perception to certain objects or phenomena of objective reality. Integrity is a property reflected in the fact that images of perception are complete, subject-specific structures.

Ш Structurality is a property that allows one to perceive objects in the aggregate of their stable connections and relations. For example, a certain melody played on different instruments is perceived as the same

Ш Constancy - the relative constancy of the perceived form, size and color of an object, regardless of significant changes in the conditions of perception.

Ш Selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others, due to the characteristics of the subject of perception, his experience, needs.

2. Attentionandhisspecifications

Attention is the concentration of a person's consciousness on objects that have a certain significance for him.

Attention functions:

Ш activates the necessary and inhibits the psychological and physiological processes that are unnecessary at the moment;

Ш promotes purposeful, organized selection of incoming information;

Ш provides long-term concentration of activity on the same object.

Kinds of attention

Involuntary attention is a type of attention that occurs without any intention and without a predetermined goal. Human mental activity occurs as if by itself, without volitional efforts of the individual.

Involuntary attention is caused by the peculiarities of stimuli acting on a person. These features include:

The strength of the stimulus (strong sound, bright light);

Ш novelty, unusual stimulus;

Ш the mobility of the object, as well as the beginning or termination of the action of the stimulus.

Table 1. Types of attention.

Involuntary attention arises depending on the state of the person himself, is associated with his mood, feelings, expectations, needs, interests and attitude to what affects him (tell me what you are paying attention to, and I will tell you who you are).

Voluntary attention is attention that arises as a result of a consciously set goal, as a result of the use of volitional effort,

Maintaining stable, voluntary attention depends on a number of conditions:

Awareness of duty and obligation in the performance of this activity;

Ш a clear understanding of the purpose and objectives of the activity being performed;

Ш stability of interest in the performed activity;

Favorable, familiar working conditions.

Post-voluntary attention is attention that combines some features of voluntary and involuntary attention, arises after voluntary attention based on interest in an object or phenomenon.

Properties of attention

The amount of attention is the number of objects that are perceived by a person simultaneously with sufficient clarity. The amount of attention depends on several reasons:

Ш on the features of perceived objects (objects that are not related to each other are perceived as a number from 3 to 5, and related ones - from 12 to 14);

Ш from experience and practical activities of a person;

Ш from the task at hand.

Distribution of attention is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing actions with them or observing them.

Concentration is keeping your attention on one object or one activity while distracting from everything else.

Stability of attention is a long-term retention of attention on an object or any activity.

Fluctuation of attention is the periodic distraction and weakening of attention to a given object or activity.

Switching attention is the movement of attention from one object to another in connection with the transition from one activity to another and with the setting of a new task. With fatigue and repetitive work, switching attention is useful and necessary.

A certain lack of attention, which often makes itself felt in learning, is absent-mindedness.

There are two types of absent-mindedness.

Ш The first type of absent-mindedness is unintentional, involuntary distraction from the main activity. A person cannot concentrate on anything, he is distracted all the time, even interesting activities are sometimes interrupted due to instability of attention. Such absent-mindedness is the result of poor upbringing.

Ш The second type of absent-mindedness is a consequence of a person's excessive concentration on work, when, apart from his work, he does not notice anything and sometimes does not realize himself in the surrounding events. This type of absent-mindedness is characteristic of people who are passionate about work, overwhelmed by strong experiences, and people who do not know how to distribute attention or do not have the ability to switch attention.

Conditions for education of attention.

Attention develops not as a result of individual events, not through the use of individual techniques, but by the entire system of student's educational work at the university. To do this, the following conditions must be met:

1. In any activity, when performing any work, you must be careful, always work only carefully.

2. You should accustom yourself to work in any conditions, not be distracted by extraneous stimuli, train your attention.

3. Learn to be attentive as in lectures, practical exercises and during independent work.

4. Cultivate the habit of being mindful so that mindfulness becomes a habitual form of behavior.

This requires:

Create interest in educational work, remembering that direct interest fosters involuntary attention, and interest in the results of activities, more distant interest fosters voluntary attention;

Ш create conditions for active, independent and creative work. Academic work must be feasible, have a clear goal;

To cultivate the ability to force oneself to be attentive, to make attention obedient, seeks to overcome difficulties and be the most attentive at the right time;

To foster a sense of responsibility - by all means to do what was planned, to achieve the set goal, to figure out what is not clear;

Ш educate attention through observation. Learn to observe.

The student needs to know the characteristics and his attention - the strengths and weaknesses of his.

3. Memory properties

Memory is a cognitive mental process through which memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his life experience occurs.

In memory, such basic processes are distinguished as memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

Table 2. Classification of types of memory.

P.P. Blonsky identified 4 types of memory, depending on the characteristics of the memorization material:

Ш motor is a memory for various movements and their systems, which allow to form practical skills;

Ш-shaped - memory, through which information from various analyzers is processed. Accordingly, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory is distinguished;

Emotional - memory for feelings;

III verbal-logical - specifically human memory, the content of which are human thoughts, embodied in various linguistic forms.

There are two types of memory, depending on the nature and goals of human activity:

Ш involuntary - memory in which there is no special purpose to remember or remember something;

W is arbitrary - the memory in which such a goal stands. By the way of memorization stands out:

W semantic - memory based on generalized and specialized associations reflecting the most important and essential aspects and relationships of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

By the duration of memorization and preservation, the following stands out:

Ш short-term - memory for a few seconds (up to 5 seconds) in the case of a single perception of the memorized material;

Long-term - memory, which is characterized by long-term preservation of the material after its repeated repetition and reproduction;

W operational - memory serving directly carried out by a person.

Memory processes

Memory processes include memorization (consolidation), reproduction (actualization, renewal), as well as preservation and forgetting.

1. Memorization

Memorization is a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired.

There are various forms of the memorization process:

Ш short-term memorization - such memorization, which is carried out in such a time frame of human activity with material, in which it is possible to use only automated methods of its processing;

Long-term memorization is such memorization that allows a person to retain information that has strategic, and not tactical, significance for achieving the vital goals of an individual's activity;

Involuntary memorization is memorization without a specially set goal to remember something. One involuntarily remembers what causes active mental work;

Voluntary memorization (memorization) is memorization, which is the product of special mnemonic actions.

The effectiveness of voluntary memorization is determined by:

Мотива motives to remember;

W using rational memorization techniques;

Understanding of the material being memorized.

2. Playback

Reproduction is a process of memory, as a result of which the previously fixed content of the psyche is actualized by extracting it from long-term memory and transferring it to the operational one.

Exist different kinds the process of reproduction: recognition, actual reproduction and recall.

Recognition is the reproduction of an object under conditions of repeated perception. Recognition is different in the degree of its certainty, clarity and completeness. It can be carried out as an arbitrary or as an involuntary process.

Reproduction is a process that, in contrast to recognition, is carried out without the repeated perception of the object that

reproduced. The direction and content of reproduced images and thoughts is determined by those associations that were formed in the past experience of a person. Reproduction can be random or involuntary.

Recalling is a type of reproduction that a person resorts to when necessary to overcome significant difficulties on the path of remembering.

The success of recall depends on what methods of recall are used: drawing up a plan of the material to be remembered, actively evoking images of the corresponding objects in oneself, deliberately evoking mediating associations that, in a roundabout way, lead to reproducing what is needed.

3. Conservation

Retention is one of the sides of a single process of long-term retention of perceived information.

Conservation is a dynamic process that takes place on the basis and under conditions of a certain way of organized assimilation, including the processing of material.

Retention as a process of memory has its own laws. It has been established that saving can be dynamic (manifested in RAM) and static (manifested in long-term memory). With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, with static preservation, on the contrary, it must undergo processing, reconstruction.

Reconstruction comes in various forms:

W in the disappearance of some parts and their replacement with other parts;

Ш in changing the sequence of the material;

Ш in summarizing the material.

The studies carried out allow us to single out three essential features that distinguish the mnemonic processing of the material of individual experience in the process of its preservation from its mental processing.

1. Memory is a continuous, never-ending process

"Self-organization" of individual human experience.

2. Memory is an unconscious process that does not lend itself to self-observation directly and is revealed to the subject only through its “products”. Memory processes can be controlled only with the help of voluntary mental actions.

3. Unlike thinking, memory does not correspond to goals

activity, but semantic relations of experience, semantic formations of a person, his life values.

4. Forgetting

Forgetting is the process of a person losing the possibility of long-term retention, followed by reproduction of the perceived information.

For long-term memory, forgetting is characteristic: all unnecessary, secondary, and also a certain percentage of useful information are forgotten.

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity immediately preceding memorizing and occurring after it:

The negative influence of the activity preceding memorization is called proactive inhibition;

The negative influence of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition.

5. Mnemic human actions

V.D. Shadrikov and his students identified the following mnemonic actions as methods of voluntary memorization or organized memorization:

Grouping - dividing the material into groups for some reason (meaning, associations, and so on);

Highlighting support points - fixing a short point that serves as a support for a broader content (theses, title, questions, examples, and so on);

W plan - a set of control points;

W classification - the distribution of any objects, phenomena, concepts by classes, groups based on common characteristics;

Structuring - establishing the mutual arrangement of the parts that make up the whole;

Ш schematization - an image or description of something in basic terms;

Ия analogy - the establishment of similarity, similarity in certain respects of objects, phenomena, concepts;

W mnemonic techniques - a set of ready-made, well-known methods of memorization;

Ш recoding - verbalization, or pronunciation, presentation of information in a figurative form;

Completing the memorized material and introducing new into the memorized - using verbal mediators, combining and introducing something on the basis of situational characteristics, distribution in places;

Serial organization of the material - the establishment or construction of various sequences (distribution in volume, time, ordering in space);

Associations - establishing connections by similarity, contiguity or opposition;

Repetition - consciously controlled and uncontrolled processes of reproduction of material.

Imagination is a cognitive mental process with the help of which there is a reflection of the surrounding reality through the creation of new images from images of perception and images of representation obtained in the previous experience of a person.

Perception image is the final product of the perception process.

The representation image is the end product of the representation process - the process of deliberate and arbitrary creation of a generalized visual image and mental manipulation of it while solving various kinds of problems. In other words, the image of representation is the image of objects or phenomena of reality that are not perceived by a person at the moment, but which were perceived earlier.

Reproduction of past sensations and perceptions is always at the heart of any representation.

An image of a representation is a reproduced image of objects or phenomena of reality.

According to I.M. Sechenov's ideas in their nervous mechanisms differ from perception only by the difference in pathogens:

For perception, the stimuli are objects of external reality that a person sees, hears, perceives, and so on.

For presentation, the causative agent is a word or thought about an object or phenomenon.

The difference between images of ideas and images of perception:

III images of representation are paler than images of perception (only in some people it is vice versa);

Representation images often lack details;

The images of representation are not stable and unchanging images of the object;

The image of the representation is more static, it is either motionless, or manipulated.

There are four types of imagery:

The idea of \u200b\u200bwhat exists in reality, but what was not perceived by man before;

Ш presentation of the historical past;

Ш representation of what will happen in the future;

Ш representation of what never happened in reality.

Imagination is closely related to thinking:

• imagination and thinking arise in a problem situation;

Both processes are motivated by the needs of the individual;

Both processes work with a model of the world;

Both processes allow one to foresee the future.

However, there are differences between imagination and thinking:

The imagination is turned on at that stage of the problem situation, which is characterized by significant uncertainty, the initial data are difficult to analyze;

The result of imagination is an image, and the result of thinking is a concept;

Ш at the heart of imagination lies the possibility of choosing an image, while at the basis of thinking is the possibility of a new combination of concepts;

Imagination allows you to jump over the stages of thinking and anticipate the stages of thinking.

Types of imagination

Ш Involuntary imagination. With involuntary imagination, new images arise under the influence of little-realized or unconscious needs, drives, attitudes. Such imagination works, as a rule, when a person is asleep, is in a drowsy state, in dreams, in a state of "thoughtless" rest, and the like.

III Arbitrary imagination is a process of deliberate construction of images in connection with a consciously set goal in a particular activity. It is characterized by an awareness of not only the goal, but also the motives of the activity, for which a person must produce new images.

Arbitrary imagination is divided into recreational and creative.

a) Recreational imagination is characterized by the fact that in its process subjectively new images are created, new for a given person, and objectively they already exist, are embodied in certain cultural objects. Reconstruction of an image can take place on the basis of a verbal description, the perception of images in the form of pictures, diagrams, maps, drawings, mental or material models.

b) Creative imagination is the independent creation of new images that are realized in the original products of activity. Creative imagination is the production of an original image without relying on a ready-made description or conventional image. This kind of imagination plays an important role in all kinds of creative activities of people.

III Visual imagination is the kind of imagination behind which there is a specific visual image.

Ш Abstract-logical imagination is a kind of imagination behind which there are abstract concepts, as well as logical relationships.

Operating with images, representations is carried out in time and space. In this regard, the representation of time and the representation of space are distinguished.

a) An image representation of time is a product of such a representation that can be saturated with details, generalized or schematized, changed brightness, differentiated.

b) An image representing space is an image with which you can perform the following operations: mental rotation, scale transformation, moving objects, combining components, changing spatial orientation, incrementing, grouping, splitting, and others.

III Dream is a special form of imagination. A dream is always aimed at the future, at the prospects for the life and activities of a particular person. A dream allows a person to plan for the future and organize their behavior to fulfill it. The images created in a dream are distinguished by a bright, lively, concrete character and at the same time - emotional saturation, attractiveness for the subject.

Ш Fantasy is a kind of imagination in which there is no connection between the desired future and the present. In this case, the dream from a stimulus for action can turn into a substitute for action and be reborn into daydreaming, into fantasy.

Imagination techniques:

1. Combination - a combination of individual elements of various images of objects in new, more or less unusual combinations. Combination is the process of significant transformation of the elements from which a new image is built.

2. Agglutination - the creation of new images on the basis of "gluing" ideas, combining qualities, properties, parts of objects that are not connected in reality (mermaid, hut on chicken legs, Centaur);

3. Agglutination manifests itself not only in art, but also in technology: trolleybus, snowmobile, amphibious tank are created in this way;

4. Hyperbolization - exaggeration or understatement of objects, their parts and qualities (Boy-with-finger, Thumbelina, flying carpet, seven-league boots and others);

5. Typification - the selection of the essential in homogeneous phenomena and its embodiment in any specific image;

6. Accentuation - highlighting a certain part of an object or part of the body of an animal or a person with a subsequent change in size (cartoons, friendly cartoons).

Connection of imagination with reality

There are four forms of connection between images of imagination and reality.

1. Any image of the imagination is always built from elements taken from reality and contained in the previous experience of a person (Serpent-Gorynych). One of the most important laws of the imagination is the following: the creative activity of the imagination is in direct proportion to the richness and diversity of a person's previous experience. The richer a person's experience, the more material his imagination has,

2. There is a close connection between the complex phenomena of reality and the finished products of the imagination. Thanks to this connection, a person can expand his experience, acquire knowledge about the distant past of mankind (the image of the Great French Revolution, the Battle of Kulikovo).

This connection is possible only through someone else's or social experience.

3. There is a close emotional connection between imagery and reality. There is a law of double expression of feelings: Every feeling has not only an external, bodily expression, but also an internal expression that affects the selection of thoughts, images, impressions, "A frightened crow is afraid of a bush." Grief and mourning are black, joy is a light tone, rebellion is red, and so on.

4. Constructions of fantasy - there is something essentially new that has not been in human experience and does not correspond to any really existing object. However, having taken a material embodiment, having become a thing, this "crystallized" imagination begins to really exist in the world and affect other things (any technical solution, machine or tool).

Thinking

Thinking is a cognitive mental process, with the help of which a generalized and indirect reflection of the surrounding reality takes place.

Thinking arises on the basis of a person's practical activity from his sensory experience and goes far beyond its limits.

Domestic psychology considers thinking as a process:

Ш formed in social conditions of life;

W manifested at first as an expanded object-oriented activity, passing into reduced forms;

Ш acquiring the character of internal mental actions.

The essence of thinking is to reflect:

Ш General and essential properties of objects or phenomena of the surrounding reality, including those that are not directly perceived;

Ш Substantial relations and regular connections between objects and phenomena.

A person resorts to mediated cognition in cases when:

Direct cognition is impossible due to imperfection of scientific methods or lack of appropriate analyzers;

Direct knowledge is excluded, although it is possible;

Direct cognition is irrational.

Generalization of thinking is ensured by the fact that a person reflects the world around him not only in a figurative form, but also in a verbal form.

Types of thinking

Ш Visual-effective thinking is a type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects.

Ш Visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images. In contrast to visual-active thinking, with visual-figurative thinking, the situation is transformed only in terms of the image.

III Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out using logical operations with concepts.

Table 3. Types of thinking

Ш Theoretical thinking is a kind of thinking with the help of which the knowledge of laws and rules occurs. The solution of the problem with the indicated type of thinking occurs from the very beginning to the end in the mind using ready-made knowledge. Theoretical thinking is divided into two types:

a) figurative thinking, the material of which are representations and images of objects or phenomena of the surrounding reality;

b) conceptual thinking based on human knowledge, expressed in concepts, judgments and inferences.

Ш Empirical thinking is a type of thinking that provides preparation for the physical transformation of reality: setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme. As well as theoretical, empirical thinking is divided into two types:

a) visual-active thinking - a type of thinking that allows you to carry out practical transformative human activity with real objects. It is characteristic of people of mass working professions engaged in real productive labor;

b) visual-figurative thinking - a type of thinking directly related to a person's perception of the surrounding reality. Typical for children of preschool and primary school age, as well as representatives of "operator" professions, leaders of different ranks.

Ш Creative thinking is thinking that allows a person to generate new creative ideas in conditions of freedom from any criticism, external and internal prohibitions.

Creative thinking is characterized by the following features:

a) obtaining results that no one has received before;

b) the ability to act in different ways, not knowing which of them can lead to the desired result;

c) a priori (preliminary) unknown of the ways by which this result can be achieved;

d) lack of sufficient experience in solving such problems;

e) the need to act independently and without prompting.

Ш Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in terms of its functional purpose opposite to creative one. Critical thinking requires rigor towards oneself and others in the selection and evaluation of ideas put forward.

Ш Non-verbal thinking (visual) - thinking, which is based on the vision or representation of objects that make up the content of the problem being solved.

Ш Verbal thinking is based, first of all, on abstract sign structures, in particular, on the word.

Thought operations

In the process of solving a mental task, a person uses various mental operations:

Ш analysis - dismemberment of a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics;

III synthesis - a mental transition from parts to the whole;

Comparison - the establishment of similarities or differences between objects;

Generalization - mental unification of objects or phenomena according to their general and essential characteristics;

Abstraction - a distraction from the insignificant on the basis of the selection and preservation of essential properties and connections of objects or phenomena;

Ш concretization is the transition from the general to the singular, corresponding to this general.

Logical forms of thinking

There are three main logical forms of thinking.

1. Concept

Concept - This is a logical form of thinking, which reflects the general and essential features, properties of objects or phenomena of the surrounding reality.

A representation is an image of a specific object. The presentation is concrete, figurative, visual.

2. Judgment

Judgment is a logical form of thinking, which reflects connections between objects or phenomena of reality or between their properties and attributes.

Judgments are formed in two main ways:

III directly - when what is perceived is expressed in a judgment;

III indirectly - by reasoning, which is a form of mediated cognition of reality.

3. Inference

Inference is a logical form of thinking, with the help of which a person, comparing and analyzing various judgments, comes to new general or particular conclusions, to new judgments.

In the process of carrying out mental activity, a person uses two types of inferences:

Induction - a way of reasoning from private judgments to general

Sh deduction is a way of reasoning from general judgments to particular ones.

A typical example of inference is the proof of a mathematical theorem.

Thinking as a process of solving a problem

Any task has an objective (subject) and subjective (psychological) structure. Objectively, the task includes:

A set of certain conditions;

Ш is a requirement to be achieved.

From a psychological point of view, a subjective goal corresponds to the requirement of a task, and the means to achieve it correspond to a condition. Consequently, the solution of the problem is the process of achieving the set goal, the search for the means necessary for this, in the given conditions.

The solution of the problem, the resolution of the problem situation is carried out in general terms according to the following scheme:

1. Awareness of the problem situation;

2. Statement of the problem;

3. Limiting the search area;

4. Constructing a hypothesis;

5. Testing the hypothesis;

6. Reflection of actions and results.

A problem situation always arises as a kind of obstacle, a gap in activity.

Ш The first step in solving a problem is understanding the problem situation.

Ш At the second stage, there is a selection of what is known and what is unknown. As a result, the problem turns into a task.

Ш At the third stage, the search area is limited based on ideas about the type of problem, based on previous experience.

Ш At the fourth stage, a hypothesis appears as an assumption about how to solve the problem.

III The fifth stage is the implementation of the hypothesis.

Sixth stage - hypothesis testing.

Individual features of human mental activity.

Differences in the mental activity of people are manifested in various qualities of thinking, the most essential of which are breadth and depth, independence and criticality, flexibility and quickness of mind. These qualities of thinking, or qualities of the mind, become a kind of personality traits.

Speech functions

As already mentioned, thinking is carried out in a speech form. Thus, speech performs an important function - it is a means of thinking.

Along with this, there is another important function - speech is a means of communication between people. When communicating with each other, people use words and use the grammatical rules of a particular language (Russian, English, etc.).

Language is a system of verbal signs, a means by which communication between people is carried out.

Speech is the process of using language to communicate with people.

Language and speech are inextricably linked and represent a unity. This unity is expressed in the fact that historically the language of any nation was created and developed in the process of verbal communication of people.

Types of speech

According to their features and functional purpose, they distinguish between external and internal speech.

1. External speech

External speech - speech used as a means of communication and expression of emotions and feelings of a person. External speech is oral and written.

Ш Oral speech is a common spoken speech that we use in direct communication with other people. Depending on the specific conditions of communication, oral speech takes the form of either dialogical or monologue speech.

Ш Dialogue speech is speech that occurs in the form of a conversation, a conversation between two or more participants. Dialogue speech, as a rule, does not have a pronounced deliberate nature, a pre-developed plan, it is distinguished by comparative conciseness.

Ш Monologue speech is speech used in various oral and written presentations. Monologue forms of speech include lectures, reports, speeches at meetings, announcements, orders and many others, oral and written messages. Monologue speech is a more difficult, complex and intense form of speech.

Ш Written speech - speech carried out using graphic images, written signs (letters) denoting the sounds of oral speech. The lack of direct contact between the writer and the reader creates difficulties in the construction of written speech. Inner speech

Inner speech - speech used in the process of thinking - speech to oneself.

Inner speech has a shortened, curtailed character. This is due to the fact that the subject of one's own thought is quite clear and therefore does not require detailed verbal formulations from a person. A thought that is not sufficiently formalized in external speech cannot be clearly expressed in external speech.

Conclusion

Attention is the dynamic side of all cognitive mental processes, characterizes the conditions of this cognitive mental process.

Memory is a continuous, never-ending process of "self-organization" of a person's individual experience.

Thinking is a cognitive mental process through which a generalized and indirect reflection of the environment occurs

As already mentioned, thinking is carried out in a speech form. Thus, speech performs an important function - it is a means of thinking.

List of references

1. Baranov P.P., V.I. Kurbatov. Legal psychology. Rostov - on - Don, "Phoenix", 2007.

2. Bondarenko TA Legal psychology for investigators. M., 2007.

3. Volkov V.N., S.I. Yanaev Legal Psychology. M., 2005.

4. Vasiliev V.L. "Legal Psychology": Textbook - SPb., 2006.

5. Enikeev M.I. Legal psychology. M., 2006.

6. Psychological techniques in the work of a lawyer. Stolyarenko O.M. M., 2006.

7. Shikhantsov G.G. Legal psychology. M., 2006.

Bystander effect. Group psychological phenomenon

In fact, this Bystander effect (bystander apathy) is shown in the image of the Good Samaritan. Scientists call it “diffusion of responsibility”. For example, an ordinary passerby finds himself in a predicament that requires help. The study shows that he will have a higher chance of getting help if one person witnessed, and, accordingly, a lower probability if there were several witnesses.

In the course of the study, the scientists simulated an event in which high school students touched and were about to beat their younger "bespectacled and nerd" in the school wardrobe, in front of other students. 86% of those who watched this alone intervened and stood up for the victim. However, if two teenagers watched the same situation, then the chances of help and patronage fell to 64%. When the researchers increased the number of observers to four, the chances dropped to 30%.

However, this effect can be slightly mitigated. If you are unlucky enough to get into a critical situation and you need help, then ask for help not from the public, but contact more personally and specifically. Instead of "Help!" Better to contact "Woman in black dress, call an ambulance!"

The Pygmalion effect. (Rosenthal) (Pygmalion effect, Rosenthal effect)

This psychological phenomenon gained popularity thanks to Robert Rosenthal, after whom it was named. The researcher tested the IQ of students in schools, and deliberately provided false information about student performance. Children with high scores were assigned average scores. And those who had an average result were credited with top scores IQ testing. What happened next? Those schoolchildren who were introduced to the teachers as more gifted and intelligent, really began to study more successfully and diligently. This happened because the plans and assumptions of teachers from specific students were higher than from others. It was a certain pressure from the teachers that forced the "average" to study. This research can be formed with one tape - your assumptions and plans for a person or event shape your reality and thoughts.

The experiment was carried out in the field of education, but the findings can be applied in other areas. So, if you want to reach certain heights, then it is better to set high targets in advance and assess your ability to achieve these goals much higher than the real state of affairs. Also, scientists noticed another pattern. Leaders who set high performance standards for their teams achieve more than leaders who set highly achievable goals.

The effect of complete failure. (Pratfall effect)

If you've shown your audience that you're not perfect, the chances are that your audience will see you in a more pleasing light. When we need to impress our interlocutor and make him feel positive about you, then we try to show advantages, not disadvantages. It turns out that another strategy will be much more effective. It is worth showing your vulnerability and weakness, because according to research, this is what stimulates empathy from other people. For example, if a professor who speaks at a conference is more worried, then he will be trusted faster than the lecturer who speaks with confidence. That is, making mistakes in front of an audience is normal, and you can benefit from this in the form of a positive attitude.

Focusing effect. (The focus effect)

People tend to overestimate the properties and qualities of things (phenomena) that they think about. Is there a cardinal difference in the feeling of happiness between a person who earns 10 thousand dollars a year for work, or a person who earns 4 thousand hryvnias a month? In fact, there is a difference, but it is rather meager. Will you be happy if you move to live on the seashore or ocean, in a two-story house? Hardly. For example, residents of Florida, despite 10 sunny months a year, are not much happier than residents of Chicago or New York.

The focusing effect is widely used by marketers. They try to convince the person that a certain purchase will make them happy and joyful, which is highly unlikely in the long run.

Spotlight effect. (Spotlight effect)

Most people, when walking down the street, are usually busy thinking. About family, work, credit, children, an interesting book, plans for the future. And when thinking process busy with thoughts, then people do not always pay attention to others.

In fact, passers-by frankly don't care how ironed your shirt is, whether you wear your tie the right way when you go to university or work. The overwhelming majority of them will not even notice the flaw in your appearance, because they will be busy with their own thoughts, which are much more interesting for them. In the center of attention, under a conventional spotlight, you are less often than you think about it. That is why stop worrying about such "empty" attributes of human life, because those around you are more busy with their own problems than with your new smartphone, which you are trying to "light up" in front of others.

Psychological phenomena of decision making: the paradox of choice. (The paradox of choice)

As research by Mark Lepper and Shin Isengar shows, the more varied the choices, the less satisfaction we get from our decision. As part of the study, scientists offered a group of visitors in a hypermarket to take 1 of 6 types of jam for free. Others were asked to choose between 24 banks. The conclusions of the experiment demonstrated that 32% of the subjects who made a choice from 6 cans were quite satisfied with the decision. But of those who chose one species out of 24, only 3% were satisfied with the choice. The effect was discovered by Barry Schwartz. To avoid the paradox of choice, the researcher recommends limiting in your thoughts the number of probable choices to which you can lean.

These six psychological phenomena will make it easier for you to find causal relationships in the behavior of your friends, colleagues and others. And don't forget to try these effects on yourself. Ask yourself more often: "Am I really getting a lot of attention from passers-by, or does the spotlight effect work?"

Self-hypnosis and its effect on the body are mental phenomena during self-hypnosis. On the nature of psychological phenomena Mental phenomena

Types of phenomena

Cultural phenomenon

Culture and society

Sociocultural in the works of Petyrim Sorokin and F. Tenbrook

What can be considered a socio-cultural phenomenon?

Sociocultural phenomenon of development

Personality as a psychological phenomenon

Conclusion

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Bystander effect. Group psychological phenomenon

The Pygmalion effect. (Rosenthal) (Pygmalion effect, Rosenthal effect)

The effect of complete failure. (Pratfall effect)

Focusing effect. (The focus effect)

Spotlight effect. (Spotlight effect)

Psychological phenomena of decision making: the paradox of choice. (The paradox of choice)

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