The spiritual culture of China Encyclopedia in 5 tons. Spiritual culture of China

Under the general editors: M. Titarenko

Edition "China Spiritual Culture: Encyclopedia at 5 tons. + Additional volume. M.: Vost. Lit. RAS, 2006-2010" is a pioneer form of scientific publication that does not fully fit into the usual format of encyclopedia. Each volume consists of two parts: "General section", representing itself essentially a collective monograph, which reflects the conceptual representations of Russian scientists about the history, theoretical and ideological foundations of a certain area of \u200b\u200bChinese culture, its civilization specificity, and "dictionary section" built in alphabetical order as a collection of a gloss, clarifying the content of terms, names and characteristics of the personalities mentioned in the text of the "General section". In addition to the list of literature in Russian, Chinese and other languages, to each article and gloss, the volume of this publication in the annex contains bibliographic sections - information on publications on the relevant themes in Russian in the last 20-30 or more years. The structure of additional volume "Art" is designed to reflect both semantic and cultural and functional features of the perception of "arts" in Chinese culture. In particular, the authors identify a special category of "procedural arts" connecting utility with the tasks of spiritual education. By the number of "procedural arts" compilers and authors of this publication include the famous Chinese martial arts (Wu-Shu), which is devoted to the head of the "General section" of additional volume. Avora Chapter reveal the features of history, socio-cultural functions, ideological and theoretical grounds, the structure of the phenomenon of U-Shu, its transformation in the modern world.

The sixth (additional) volume of the Encyclopedia "Chinese spiritual culture" is dedicated to art that permeates the Chinese culture from the highest theoretical spheres to everyday phenomena. The general section of the volume contains essays grouped by type and genre of art (architecture, painting, calligraphy, decorative and applied arts, cinema, theater, music, martial arts, etc.), as well as historical bibliographic subsections about cultural and historical specifics Chinese art and studying it in Russia. The vocabulary section presents the concepts and categories of traditional and modern Chinese arts, artistic directions, architectural monuments, personalities and works. The reference section includes pointers and other reference materials.

Chapter Book

In the picture of the world, rationalized by traditional Chinese cosmology, emphasizes the integrity of the universe, in which a person is not part of, but a certain face, an integral aspect. And although the thinkers of different directions argued a lot about the exit beyond the limits of restrictions imposed by relations of the real world, at the same time a person was predominantly proposed to proceed from that internal perfection - "good nature", "heavenly principle" - which is laid in him. God-Creator and the idea of \u200b\u200bSierangia - the compounds of the Divine and human free in a single commercial action - this picture of the world does not fit. It is equally inappropriate in it the idea of \u200b\u200bsaving grace of God. Even by the impending top of Being, reaching the highest ontological status, man continues to be a member of the current space process, at least "along with heaven and land", remains involved in him. This globility is inevitably fixed in Chinese in the practice of martial arts: Gunfu, Qigong, Wushu, etc.

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Chinese spiritual culture: Encyclopedia: in 5 tons. / ch. ed. M. L. Titarenko. In-t of the Far East. - M.: Vost. LIT-RA, 2006. T. 1. Philosophy/ Ed. M. L. Tita Renko, A. I. Kobzev, A. E. Lukyanov. - 2006. - 727 p.

The first volume of the encyclopedia of the spiritual culture of Ki-Taya (EDCC) is devoted to this day from ancient times to this day. EDCK is an unprecedented phenomenon not only in the Russian, but also in the whole world synology. Nor in the West, nor in China so far there has been nothing like this. Epochal labor was created by the team, but in it, which is characteristic of the few works of this kind, the editors spoke not only and not as much as the organizers, but also as the main performers. (Especially, this refers to A. I. Kobzev.)

The publication uniquely combines the highest theoretical achievements of modern science and a huge array of concrete actual information against the background of information god-tee illustrative material. It can be said that this publication is an outstanding achievement of Russian science, since the complexity of the task has not yet allowed the international scientific community to create something similar, although attempts were made, and with opportunities (financial and organizational), incomparable with Russian. In particular, it was not implemented in the late 80s. The last century is a similar project, at the head of which there were such famous cinemas as L. Lunchotti, Franke, B. Hook, M. Level, K. Gavlikovsky and Sheng Shi-Yun.

Deeply thought-out architectonics of work consisting of three sections: general, vocabulary and reference, - allowed her to become not only the most informative description of the theoretical and historical features of Chinese philosophy, but also a detailed reference book in this area covering all the main dictionary functions from the nominal and The subject indicators to chronology, cartography and a detailed bibliography in all major languages. In other words, the book combines the ray of the quality of the theoretical monograph, the textbook and dictionary, and at the same time it is a fiction, saturated originous design solutions using an extensive hieroglyphic, iconographic, portrait and other one needed for synology of the visual material, handwriting Nut, in particular, from rare Chinese publications. Such a brilliant combination was possible, because the work was built on three whales: on the scientific developments of the largest Russian sisologists accumulated by the leading Russian Center for Dal-Unlawful Research - the Institute of Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in the Library Foundations in the country's largest Russian State Library and On the richest half-century publisher, the best in our country of the Oriental Publisher "Eastern Literature" RAS.

Collective work was created almost a half dozen years. It was attended by all the leading domestic specialists in co-authorship with Chinese colleagues, which allowed the most detailed way to submit not only the subject, but also - reflectively - one of the oldest and most developed synocy-logical schools in the world - domestic China. This work is largely a result. And the first volume of the total, on the one hand, the witness is that Russian science retains and continues to increase the powerful spiritual potential in spite of all objective difficulties that seem to be impossible. On the other hand, sets a high bar for subsequent volumes. According to the meaning and spirit, the publication is drawn to the future, for it is destined to become one of him from the pillars of the Synological Education and Enlightenment in the country. I would like the publication to retain the level of "Zatchi-on" and would not be delayed for decades.

In China, the heroes and wise men traditionally read, the main advantages of which were the service of power and following the laws of the sky, prescribing moderation, respect, loyalty and justice. They were angry with the oldest books of China: "Shuzzin" - a book of history, Schizhin - the book of folk songs and sacred hymns, "Izzin" - a book of change, "Vizhin" - a book on the rules of behavior and customs and "Yuejin" - a book about music. Knowledge of these books was mandatory for any competent person, and later they became the main and private, and in the state system of training, and then the goal and means of the examination selection of officials to government positions.

Among the great sages of China, philosophers, expressing the essence of the mentality of the ancient Chinese society, and have had the strongest influence on its development at subsequent times. This is the founders of Taoism and Confucianism - Lao Tzu and Confucius.

The sage of Lao Tzu lived at the end of the VII - early VI century BC. e. It is curious that with all the abundance of written sources about various personalities in Chinese history, about Lao Tzu, only vague legends have been preserved, which he said that he was born in 604 BC. er, lived 160 or 200 years, in old age met with Confucius, wrote the book "Dajejin" ("Book about Dao and De" or "Book of Run and Virtue"). So far, historians are not sure that such a person existed really: it can be a bright idea of \u200b\u200ban ancient sage, calm, who knows all the secrets of the existence of peace and man in it. In 1973, in the city of Mavelowu, one of the graves of the period of the Han dynasty was opened, "in which two copies of the works of Lao Tzu, written on the fabric, found.

The basic concept of Taoism is Tao. The direct value of the Heroglyph "Dao" (consisting of two parts: the show - the head and the Zou - go) - "the road on which people walk", but in the future this hieroglyph acquired a figurative meaning and began to denote the law, the law "[ibid. from. 48]. In the dictionaries "Tao" translate as: "way, road, means, way, speak, lead along." The wise men and philosophers interpreted the Tao as the law of nature inherent in it initially, as a source of life, like the "mother of all things", "way of nature". He is invisible and omnipresent, he will not separate from the world - it is born in it and it is managed. Tao generates all things in the world, but does it inactive. Tao combines all possible opposites of the world.

In order to comprehend Dao, you need to endlessly study it. Following the Dao, you need to be consistent and accurate, try in your personal path (Dao) to change anything around yourself, deepening only Tao Universe. The best way Life's knowledge is inaction, bending - U-Wei, which leads to freedom, happiness, prosperity.

If you do not interfere in the universe, not to apply artificial measures to it, which does not characterize it, she will come to order. And the wise, the next Tao of the Universe ruler does not contribute any innovations and reforms in the country's management. Then, developing freely, according to the Universe, the country is calm, harmonious and flourishes. If efforts contradict the law of the world, they represent their empty waste of forces and lead to death. The goal of a person and ruler should be the "harmony of the world" - the merger of a person with nature. Therefore, everything is artificial, associated with fuss and everyday life, is considered to be superfluous interfering with the implementation of Tao. Lao Tzu believed that nothing needs to be changed in the natural course of life, even in education and training. "It is difficult to manage the people when he has a lot of knowledge. Therefore, the country's management with the help of knowledge is the enemy of the country, and without their use - the happiness of the country."

Any book written in the East, teaching or religion certainly concern morality. This constantly observed tradition follows "Dajejin". Ethics of Lao Tzu is the ethics of a sage that does not have a vanity. He does not chance for wealth, appreciates the most life, nature and its intended, which he must know in this world.

Lao Tzu argues the equality of all things in the world, as well as the equality of all people. The wise in his book is equally applied to the knowledgeable, and to the slave, it is free not only from all sorts of prejudices and addictions, but also will not be sad about life and death. The sage understands that life, and death, and the universe are natural and inevitable, and this allows him to connect with eternity. Here we meet with one of the ancient utopia (how many of them will be in the history of mankind!), In which the dream of the "golden age" of universal equality, the "natural" state, peace and public peace is embodied.

Thus, Lao Tzu's teaching preaches a completely passive lifestyle, following the natural state, "NEW" (U-Wei), which is not at all synonymous with idleness or laziness, is a special form of active knowledge, involving only one thing: non-interference in the Universe. What should the rulers and all subjects follow. A pacification, followed by asceticism, highlighting, searching in itself and himself in the world, is the central link of Taoism, who left a significant mark in China's culture.

The doctrine of Kun Tzu (Latinizirov was completely different), the name - Confucius), which became the basis of the mentality of all subsequent generations of China and so deeply penetrated into their traditions, customs and lifestyle, which is still impossible to separate many Confucian principles from later layers in culture .

Confucianism as a doctrine was designated by the hieroglyphs "Zhu Jia" - "School of Scientists of Brites." Such scribes often had people from impoverished official families. They were made by stray teachers who earned their bread in that they helped to study the ancient books.

Confucius (approx. 551-479 BC) - a leaving from the impoverished aristocratic family of officials and military. Chinese historian Csyan Sum (145 or 135 - Ok. 86 BC. Er) talks about him: "Confucius was languoring, poor." But the poverty did not prevent, maybe even contributed to the fact that Confucius decided to show himself on the state field. He believed that in the troubled time he lives, only an honest service and high morality of society could be the basis of order and calm in the country.

Ancient Chinese books suggest that Confucius was soft and energetic, attentive to people, fulfilling their official duties. But the ruling elite did not want his promotion, did not accept his advice, he had to live in an atmosphere of endless intrigues, so he left his official career and took up teaching.

Confucius died at the age of 73, leaving behind many students of different ages and provisions. In the School, Confucius studied morality, politics, literature, language. Training took place in the form of conversations in which he expressed the essence of his teaching. Conversations made up the book "Lunyuy" ("reasoning and conversation"), written by students and followers of Confucius.

Confucius did not consider the Secrets of Genesis, the questions of knowing the world, he was interested in a person in the world of people. But he also gives tribute to tradition, calling the beginning began the sky in which he sees a part of nature available for observations, as well as the highest spiritual force, forming and guiding nature and humans. According to confusion, life and death are determined by fate, wealth and knowledge depend on the sky.

In addition to the sky, the category of Tao is also present in Confucianism. But Tao Confucius is a moral value, a moral law, the path of behavior, the debt, to whom a person must follow in his actions

Cognition can be developed and improved by studying the traditions of antiquity, comprehending the moral norms, giving them an interpretation and relying on humanity, on the "human beginning" in man. According to Voltaire, Confucius suggested "incessantly monitoring himself and correcting the mistakes made yesterday." For Confucius, the knowledge of himself is self-improvement, whose goal is to achieve the status of the "noble husband" - Junja.

Junja ("a noble husband" Confucius) is the perfect image of a person who has the perfection of behavior, honest, disinterested, wise, fair. All his life is serving people for the sake of the approval of truth.

The basis on which all these virtues exist is the main concept of Confucianism - Zhen (humanity, humans). Manifestations of Jene - justice, sincerity, mercy, kindness, restraint. This concept is significant, it includes: the general culture of man, ideal relations in the family, society and the state. The hieroglyph, denoting Hents, consists of two characters - "man" and "two". Therefore, Confucius, speaking of Jene, always connects this concept with relations between people and the ruler's attitude towards people: "Who is human, he gives another support, wanting it to have it, and helps them to achieve success, wanting him to achieve him.

So the separation of responsibilities in society is approved and, as a result, strict hierarchy. However, the ruler must necessarily have to have humanity, virtue.

Sonnial respect - respect for parents and seniors by age and position - becomes the basis of Jen, and combined with it is particularly effective as the principle of the country management that Confucius represents as a large family. In the family, a person must receive the basics of education, according to them, children should be not only submissive by the will of their parents, but they must sincerely love them.

For Confucius, a man is the central link of all his teachings, so much attention he pays for self-education and self-improvement, based on knowledge, reasonable regulation of prescriptions, customs, etiquette. The path to excellence has three steps: poetry, Lee-etiquette and music. Poetry develops thinking, fantasy, the ability to understand other people. Music is a means of changing bad customs, because she teaches man to the finest shades of feelings. Lee-etiquette is in the center of all the desire of the "noble husband" to perfection. (Translation of the concept of "Lee" is multi-rival: decency, ceremony, rite, ritual, decency; Originally called special shoes for the religious rite).

Confucius's doctrine is not immediately included in China's life practice: too high was the proposed level of relationship, but his disciples and followers for more than a century argued the foundations of Confucianism in sermons, educational and educational activities. This created a whole layer of culture in the tradition of Chinese, where the central link is ethics, strictly compliance with the standards of exploring the elder in the family and society, loyalty to the ideals, an outlined teacher in his school, where he was preparing future officials who had to become fair assistants who could achieve Virtue and harmony in the state. The assimilation of Confucian canonized books was based on Chinese education and became an indispensable condition for receiving responsible posts in the public service. Culture China Taoism Tradition

As you can see, the thought of wise men of China kneaded to the issues of the organization of the state. The state was the basis that cemented all sides of culture: equipment, art, religion, relations between people, traditions and customs. A feature of the whole Chinese culture can be considered that she sought to keep his past, approve it as a present. Any innovation could not be perceived if there was no connection with well known. Confucius said: "I mean, but I do not create." He considered himself a student of the ancients, whose words he did not add, but passed them in the original and pristine unchanged. All new was taken in China only as well-forgotten old, and therefore all subsequent layers of culture in art, religion, politics are characterized by static traditional.

Later philosophical theory - Fazzya, or Lead, concerned predominantly political sphere and was looking for ways to strengthen power, gaining stability in society. Her creator Shang Yang (390-338) is the chief minister of the Cinnsky kingdom, legalized the right of private property and deprived the aristocracy of the inheritance rights of state posts (for which in its insistence was executed). He placed his main views in the work of the "Book of the ruler of the Shan." Shanan Yang believed that the state needs strict laws that would protect the sole power of the ruler, punished for the slightest violation.

This increased all subsequent Chinese statehood, which turned China into the Empire, during which the foundations of the entire cultural future of China were laid, a little changed to the present day. After the death of the "first emperor" Qin Shi-Huangi (259-210 BC), the war began immediately not only with the house of Qin, how much between applicants for the imperial power. In 202 BC e. Liu Bon, one of the leaders of the popular uprising, broke the troops of one of the applicants and laid the beginning of a new - Han dynasty. It was with her that the famous ethnic community that Andersen noted in his fairy tale. So far, the Chinese call themselves hanians.

From the Chan's period, the monolith of Chinese culture consists not from various elements, but in the statehood created by it, which constantly reproduces itself as integrity in the unity of all its relations. All ideas about the universe, about the place of the ruler and the subject, relationship with nature, belief and teaching are preserved - all this was not separated from the system of the state device.

Based on the Chinese spiritual culture, Buddhism, which came to China from India lies. The compound of Buddhist ideas about a person with Chinese traditions has passed painlessly, since the idea of \u200b\u200bfinding the path of self-improvement, the search for wisdom was characterized by the own sectors of Chinese culture.

Of the most excellent from each other, the most excellent from each other remained to this day - Western (European-Mediterranean for its origin) and Chinese. Their mutual polarity has very deep anthropological, and not only social and historical and cultural roots, expressing in the difference in psychotypes ("left-leopard", alphabetical, analytical and "rolling", hieroglyphic, synthetic) and, possibly, reflecting different variants of a person's sapination in two Different and fairly removed from each other points of the globe. The Chinese version is an extremely developed cultural position of a sensible and socialized "normal" person, according to Tayyr de Sharden, "infinitely complicated neatoly"; Western - paradoxical deviation from the "norm", a kind of "the perversion of the mind", based on the "striving for the impossible" and "faith in absurd". The roots of this ideology go to the ancient Indo-European custom burning, i.e. The complete dematerialization of the most expensive for a person - his spedance ancestors, which is located in the barrier contrast with the ancient Egyptian and Chinese cult of the dead.

The formation of European civilization was due to a number of unique and unique events ("Greek miracle", the birth of capitalism, the scientific and technical revolution) and, accordingly, self-effectively with the help of a linear concept of the time and recognition of such absolutely unique acts of historical drama, as a revolving or the second coming. On the contrary, the Chinese civilization developed cyclically and self-sensitive in terms of the theory of "eternal return to circles".

In the European extrasensual and super-documented worldview, be it platonic philosophy, Christian theology or scientific theory, there is a transcendent doubling of the world in his perfect design. For the Chinese Sensualistic and Important Naturalism, the world is one and by indivisions, everything is immanently and nothing, including the most subtle divine essences, not transcendentally. In the ideal world of Western man there are abstract logical laws, in the naturalistic world of the Chinese - classification structures, here the location of logic is occupied by numerology. The social consequence of such "sanity" was that in China, philosophy was always the queen of science and never became a "servant of theology."

However, with theology of its relative use of the regulated set of canonical texts. On this path, which involves the accounting of all previous points of view on the canonical problem, Chinese philosophers with inevitability turned into historians of philosophy, and in their writings, historical arguments took the top over logical. Moreover, the logical historic was, just as in the Christian religious and theological literature Logos turned into Christ and, having lived human life, opened a new era of history. But, unlike the "real" mysticism, which denies both a logical and historical, pretending to the exit and for the conceptual, and for the space-time borders, the trend towards the full immersion of mythology into a specific fabric of history prevailed in Chinese philosophy.

Chinese philosophy originated at the same time as the ancient Greek and Old Indian, - in the middle of the first thousand BC. Separate philosophical ideas and topics, as well as many terms formed later most The lexicon of the traditional Chinese philosophy, was already held in the oldest written monuments of Chinese culture - "Shu Jini" ("Canon [documentary] Scriptures"), "Shi Jin" ("Canon poems"), "Zhou and" ("Zho change"), Condemned in the 1st floor. I thousand BC. It sometimes serves as a basis for statements (especially Chinese scientists) on the emergence of philosophy in China at the beginning of the I thousand BC. This point of view is also motivated by the fact that the specified works include individual independent texts, having a developed philosophical content, for example, the head of "Hong Fan" ("Majestic Sample") from "Shu Jing" or the comment "SI TSY ZHUAN" ("Trades tied words ") from" Zhou and ". However, as a rule, the creation or final design of such texts is given by the second half of the first thousand BC.

1. Genetic and generalizhetics features.

The first historically reliable creator of the philosophical theory in China was the Confucius (VI - V centuries), who realized himself by an expressive of the spiritual tradition of the Zhu - scientists, educated people, intellectuals, whose name was then the terminological designation for Confucianism.

According to traditional datding, the senior contemporary Confucius was Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism - the main opposition confusion of ideological flow. However, now it has been established that the first actually the Taoice works were written after Confucian, even apparently came the reaction to them. Lao Tzu as a historical face most likely lived later Confucius. Apparently, inaccurately and traditional ideas about Docigns (until the end of the III century BC) period in the history of Chinese philosophy as an era of equal controversy "Stoke school", since all the philosophical schools that existed at that time were determined through their attitude towards Confucianism.

It is no coincidence that this era of the "anti-philosophical" repressions of Emperor Qin Shi-Juan in 213-210, directed precisely against Confucianians. The term Zhu from the very occurrence of Chinese philosophy indicated not only and not even so much of her schools as philosophy as a single ideological complex that combined signs of philosophy, science, art and religion. In different epochs, the balance of these signs was different.

In II century BC. Confucianism achieved the official status of orthodox ideology, but before that it informally had a similar status. Consequently, the whole history of Chinese philosophy is related to the fundamental division of philosophical schools on the basis of correlation with orthodoxy. This relevant theology of the classification principle had in traditional China universal importance, extending to all spheres of culture, including scientific disciplines. Confucius and the first philosophers - Zhu - saw their main task in theoretical understanding of the life of society and the personal fate of a person. As carriers and distributors of culture, they were closely related to social institutions responsible for storing and reproduction of written, including historical and literary, documents (culture, writing and literature in chinese Due to one term - Wen), and their representatives - screenshots - Shi. From here, three main features of Confucianism: 1) in the institutional plan - the relationship or an active desire for communication with the administrative apparatus, permanent claims for the role of official ideology; 2) in a meaningful plan - the dominance of socio-political, ethical, social science, humanitarian issues; 3) in a formal plan - recognition of a textual canon, i.e. Compliance with the strict formal criteria for "literature" as a methodologically significant norm.

From the very beginning, the Confucius software was "transferred, and not to create, believe the antiquity and love it" ("Lun Yu", VII, 1). At the same time, the act of transferring an ancient wisdom to the upcoming generations had a cultural and creative character, if only because the archaic works (canons), which led the first Confucians, were already unlimited by their contemporaries and demanded comprehensive interpretations. As a result, the dominant forms of creativity in Chinese philosophy were the commentation and exegez of ancient classical works. Even the most bold innovators sought to look only with interpreters or reducing agents of an old ideological orthodoxy. The theoretical innovation, as a rule, not only was not focused and did not receive an explicit expression, but, on the contrary, intentionally dissolved in the mass of the commentator (quasom-gate) text.

This feature of Chinese philosophy was determined by a number of factors - from social to linguistic. Ancient Chinese society did not know the polis democracy and the type of philosopher, deliberately detached from the surrounding empirical life in the name of the understanding of being as such. The acquisition for writing and culture in China has always been determined quite high social status and determined it. Already with II century. BC, with the transformation of Confucianism to the official ideology, the examination system began to develop, fixing the relationship of philosophical thought with both state institutions and "classical literature" - a certain set of canonical texts. Ancient times, such a connection was determined by a specific (including linguistic) complexity of obtaining education and access to material carriers (primarily books).

What was going to "transfer" Confucius was recorded mainly in historical and literary monuments - "Shu Jini" and "Shi Jin". Thus, the specifics of Chinese philosophy defined close relationship not only with historical, but also with a literary thought. The philosophical works traditionally reigned a literary form. On the one hand, the philosophy itself did not strive for dry abstractness, on the other hand, the literature was impregnated with the "finest juices" of philosophy. According to the degree of fiction, Chinese philosophy can be compared with Russian philosophy. These features, Chinese philosophy as a whole preserved up to the beginning of the 20th century, when influencing the acquaintance with Western philosophy in China, unconventional philosophical theories began to occur.

The specifics of Chinese classical philosophy in a meaningful aspect defines first of all the dominance of naturalism and the lack of developed idealistic theories of the type of Platonism or Neoplatonism (especially the classical European idealism of the new time), and in a methodological aspect - the absence of such a universal society and general scientific organon, as a formal logic (which is Direct consequence of the undevelopment of idealism). We are talking about naturalism, and not about materialism, because the last correlated idealism and outside this correlation term "materialism" loses the scientific meaning. The very concept of matter European philosophy received from the depths of Platonovsky idealism (and the term "idea" is from the Democritian materialism).

The researchers of Chinese philosophy often see the concept of ideal in categories of "Lack of non-existence" (especially in Taoists; see Yu-y) or whether - the "principle of the reason" (especially in neoconfutsians). However, at best, it may mean some analogue of Platonovo-Aristotelian matter as a clean capabilities (current non-existence), and whether it expresses an idea of \u200b\u200ban ordering structure (patterns or "legitimate place"), immanently inherent in each individual thing and devoid of transcendent.

In the classic Chinese philosophy, who did not develop the ideal as such (ideas, Eidos, forms, a transcendental deity), there was no not only "Plato Line", but also "Line of Democritus", since the rich tradition of materialistic thought was not formed in theoretically meaningful opposition clearly The expressed idealism and independently did not give rise to atomics at all. All this testifies to the undoubted domination in the classical Chinese philosophy of naturalism, is typologically similar to the Democritian philosophizing in Ancient GreeceBut incomparably more complex thanks to centuries-old consistent development.

2. Methodological specificity.

One of the consequences of the general flow role of logic in Europe was the acquisition of philosophical categories primarily of the logical meaning, the gene-tically-rising grammatical models of ancient Greek. The term "category" itself implies "expressed", "approved" (Cat? Egore). Chinese analogs of categories, genetically popular to the mythical ideas, the images of assigitive practices and economic ordering activities, found primarily natural philosophical meaning and used as classification matrices: for example, binary - yin yang or lance and - "binary images"; Tropic - Tian, \u200b\u200bZhen, Di - "Sky, Man, Earth" or San Cai - "Three Materials"; Patracatic - Sin - "Five Elements". The modern Chinese term "category" (Fancou) has a numerological etymology, occurring from the designation of a ninellular square (according to the magic square model 3? 3) - Lo Shu (see Hue Tu, Lo Shu), on which "Hong Fan" is founded. Location of logic (see logic and dialectics in China) in China occupied the so-called numerology (Xianghuchi Xue), i.e. The formalized theoretical system, the elements of which are mathematical or mathematic-shaped objects - numerical complexes and geometrical structures related, however, among themselves are mainly not but the laws of mathematics, and otherwise it is symbolically, associatively, factual, aesthetically, mnemonic, suggestive, etc. As shown at the beginning of the XX century. One of the first researchers of the Ancient Chinese methodology of Hy Shea, the two main varieties were the Confucian logic set out in the "Zhou and" and the Moist logic set forth in Ch. 40-45 "Mo Tzu", i.e. Numerology and protestology. The most ancient and canonical forms of self-combating the general consumption methodology of Chinese classical philosophy, implemented in Numerology "Zhou and", Hong Fanya, "Tai Xuan Jing" and in the protesto "Mo Tzu", "Gunsun Lun-Tzu", "Xun-Tzu "Now they cause increased interest in all global synology.

Hu Shi was sought to demonstrate the presence in the ancient Chinese philosophy of the "logical method", on equal rights including in it and protestology and numerology. The wonderful achievement of Hu Sha was the "discovery" in ancient China developed general consumption methodology, but he failed to prove its logical character, which was fairly noted in 1925 by the future academician V.M. Alekseev. In the 1920s, the most prominent European sinologists A. Forka and A. Maspero showed that even the development of late mysts, the closest to the logic in the ancient Chinese methodology, strictly speaking, is erystics and, therefore, possesses the status of the protesto.

In the mid-1930s, the understanding of "Zhou and" as a logical treatise convincingly refuted Yu.K. Shchussky. And at the same time, Shen Zhong-Tao (Ch.T. Song) in a detailed form showed that the "Zhou and" numerology can be used as a general scientific methodology, since it is a slim system of symbolic forms reflecting universal quantitative and structural patterns of the universe . Unfortunately, Shen Zhong Tao left aside the question of the extent to which this potential was implemented by the Chinese scientific and philosophical tradition. The methodological role of numerology in the widest context of the spiritual culture of traditional China was then brilliantly demonstrated by an outstanding French syanologist P.M. GRANE, considered numerology as a peculiar methodology of Chinese "correlative (associative) thinking." GRANE works contributed to the emergence of modern structuralism and semiotics, but for a long time, despite their high authority, did not find a proper continuation in Western Synological.

The largest development of the theory of "correlative thinking" found in the works of the largest Western historian of Chinese science J. Nidam, which, however, fundamentally divided "correlative thinking" and numerology. From his point of view, the first due to its dialecticity served as a nutrient medium for genuine scientific creativity, the second, although the derivative of the first, rather slowed down, which stimulated the development of science. The internal contradiction of the position of Nidama externally smoothes by the narrowing of the concept of Chinese numerology to just a mysticism of numbers (naturally, not having a general methodological status). With the criticism of this position, another outstanding historian of Chinese science, N. Sivin, was made, on the material of several scientific disciplines, specifically showed an integral organic of numerological constructions inherent in them. The most radical views in the methodological interpretation of Chinese numerology adhere to domestic sinologists V.S. Spirin and A.M. Karapetyanz, defending the thesis about her full-fledged scientific relationship. Spirin sees in it primarily the logic, Karapetyanz - Mathematics. Similarly, a researcher from the PRC Liu Wei-Hua treats the numerological theory of "Zhou and" as the world's most ancient mathematical philosophy and mathematical logic. Spirin and Karapetyans offer to abandon the term "numerology" or use it only in applied to obviously unscientific buildings. A similar distinction, of course, possibly, but it will reflect the worldview of the modern scientist, and not the Chinese thinker, which has been a single methodology and in scientific, and in unscientific (from our point of view). The foundation of Chinese numerology is three types of objects, each of which is represented by two varieties: 1) "Symbols" - a) trigms, b) hexagram (GUA); 2) "Numbers" - a) HE TU, B) Lo Shu; 3) the main ontological hypostasis of "symbols" and "numbers" - a) Yin-Yang (dark and light), b) in syn (five elements). This system itself is numerologicalized, since it is built on two starting numerological numbers - 3 and 2. It reflects all three main types of graphical symbolization used in traditional Chinese culture: "symbols" - geometric shapes; "Numbers" - numbers; Yin Yang, Sin - Hieroglyphs. The specified fact is explained by the archaic origin of Chinese numerology, which, from time immemorial, performed a cultural modeling function. The oldest samples of Chinese writing are extremely numerological inscriptions on assignment bones. Therefore, in the future, canonical texts were created in numerological standards. So in a purely traditionalist society, the most significant ideas were inextricably stood with the iconic clichés, in which the composition, the number and spatial arrangement of hieroglyphs or any other graphic symbols were strictly established.

For his long history, numerological structures in China reached high degree Formalization. It was this circumstance that played a decisive role in the victory of Chinese numerology over the protesto, since the latter did not become neither formal nor formalized, and therefore did not possess the qualities of a convenient and compact methodological tool (organon).

The Chinese protestology simultaneously opposed numerology and strongly depended on it. So, being under the influence of a numerological conceptual apparatus, in which the concept of "contradiction" ("contradictory") was dissolved in the concept of "opposite" ("Counteriness"), the protestological thought failed to terminologically distinguish between the "contradiction" and "the opposite". This, in turn, was most importantly affected on the nature of Chinese protestology and dialectics, since the logical, and dialectic is determined through the attitude towards contradiction. The central epistemological procedure is generalization - in numerology and numerological protestology was based on the quantitative ordering of objects and the value-regulatory allocation of the main - representative - without a logical distraction of the set of ideal features inherent in the entire class of objects. Generalization is essentially interconnected with the axiological and regulation of the entire conceptual apparatus of the classical Chinese philosophy, which led to such fundamental features of the latter as felting and textual canonisticness.

In general, in the classic Chinese philosophy, Numerology prevailed with the theoretical invertation of the opposition "Logic - Dialectics", the non-differentiation of materialistic and idealistic trends and the general domination of the combinatorial and classification naturalism, the absence of a logihood idealism, as well as the conservation of the symbolic multigid of philosophical terminology and the value-regulatory hierarchy of concepts.

3. Major schools.

In the initial period of its existence (VI - III century), Chinese philosophy in the context of the categorical non-differentiation of philosophical, scientific and religious knowledge was the picture of the limiting diversity of views and directions presented as "rivalry of a hundred schools" (Bai Jia Zheng Min). The first attempts of the classification of this manifold were made by representatives of the main philosophical flows (Confucianism and Taoism) in the desire to criticize their opponents. This is specifically dedicated to ch. 6 "Fay Shi Er Tzu" ("against the twelve thinkers") of the Confucian Treatise "Xun-Tzi". In addition to the promoted teaching of the Confucius and his student Tzu Guna (V in. BC), the author allocated "six teachings" (Liu Sho), pairwise represented by 12 thinkers, and exposed their sharp criticism. In ch. 21 of his treatise Xun Tzu, giving the teachings of Confucius the role of "the only school that has reached the universal Tao and the mastered application (UN), also allocated six" errato schools "(Luan Jia).

Approximately synchronous (although, according to some assumptions, and later, up to the turn of AD) and a typologically similar classification is contained in the final ch. 33 "Tien Sia" ("Podnebyny") Treatise "Zhuang-Tzu" (IV-III centuries), where the stem, on the next ancient wisdom of the Teaching of Confucianians, who are opposed to "STR schools" (Bai Jia), divided into Six directions.

These structurally similar tunes coming from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of truth (DAO) and the manifold of its manifestations became the basis for the first classification of the main philosophical teachings as such (and not just their representatives), which the Suma Tan (II century BC. BC. ), who wrote a special treatise on "six schools" (Liu Jia), which became part of the final ch. 130 compiled by his son of Son Question (II-I centuries) of the first dynasty history "Shi Ji" ("Historical Notes"). In this work, listed and characterized: 1) "School of Dark and Light [Miro-forming began]" (Inian-Jia), in Western Literature also called "Naturophilosophical"; 2) "School of scientists" (Zhu-Jia), i.e. Confucianism; 3) "School of MO [di]" (MO-Jia, Misma); 4) "School of Names" (Min-Jia), in Western Literature also called "nominal" and "dialectic and sophistic"; 5) "School of Laws" (F-Jia), i.e. Lead and 6) "School of Path and Grace" (Daide-Jia), i.e. Taoism. The latest school was awarded the latest school, which, similar to Confucianism in the classifications from Xun-Tzu and Zhuang Tzu, is presented here the synthesizing the main advantages of all other schools. This scheme was developed in the classification and bibliographic work of an outstanding scientist Liu Blue, weigh the most of the oldest in China, and possibly in the world of the corresponding catalog "and Wen Ji" ("Treatise on Art and Literature"), which became ch. 30 Compiled by the Ban of the Second Dynasty History "Han Shu" ("Book [about the dynasty] Han"). First, the classification has grown to ten members - four new ones were added to six, the diplomatic "School of Vertical and Horizontal [Political Unions]" (Tsonghen-Jia); Eclectico-encyclopedic "Free School" (CZA-Jia); "Agricultural School" (NUN-Jia) and Folklore "School of Small Issuctive" (Xiaosh-Jia). Secondly, Liu Xin suggested the theory of the origin of each of the "Ten Schools" (Shi Jia), covering "all philosophers" (Zhu Tzu).

This theory assumed that in the initial period of formation of traditional Chinese culture, i.e. In the first centuries, I thousand BC, the carriers of socially significant knowledge were officials, in other words, "scientists" were "officials", and "officials" - "scientists". Due to the decline of the "Way of the True State Superior" (Van Dao), i.e. The weakening of the power of the ruling house Zhou, the destruction of a centralized administrative structure took place, and its representatives, having lost the official status, turned out to be forced to conduct a private lifestyle and ensure their own existence of their knowledge and skills already as teachers, mentors, preachers. In the emerging era of state fragmentation, representatives of various spheres of once unified administration formed various philosophical schools, the general designation of which Jia (this hieroglyph has the literal meaning of the "family") indicates their private nature.

Confucianism created people from the Agency of Enlightenment, "Help the rulers to follow the forces of Yin Yang and explaining how to exercise a raised influence," relying on the "written culture" (Wen) of the canonical texts "Liu and", "At Jing", "Li Xin Jing" and Humanity (HEN) and proper justice (s) in chapter. Taoism (Tao-Jia) has created immigrants from the department of chronography, which "made up the chronicle of the path (Tao) of success and lesions, existence and death, grief and happiness, antiquity and modernity," due to which the "royal art" of self-preservation was "cleanliness and voids, "humiliation and weakness. "School of Dark and Light [Miro-shaped launched]" created immigrants from the Astronomy Office, which ensured the heavenly signs, the Sun, Moon, stars, space guidelines, and alternate times. Leather has created immigrants from the judicial department who complemented the management based on "decency" (Li) awards and sentences defined by law (FA). "School of Names" created immigrants from the ritual department, whose activity was determined by the fact that in antiquity in the ranks and rituals, the nominal and real did not coincide and the problem of their bring into mutual compliance arose. Moism has created immigrability from temple watchmen, preaching thrift, "Comprehensive Love" (Jian ah), the nomination of "decent" (Xian), respect to the "Vanis" (GUI), denial of "predestination" (min) and "uniformity" (Tong) . The diplomatic "school of vertical and horizontal [political unions] created people from the Embassive Office, able to" be finally able to be guided by the prescriptions, and not words ", the eclectic-encyclopedic" free school "- immigrants from advisers who combined the ideas of Confucianism and Misa, "School of Names" and Legiamma in the name of maintaining order in the state, "Agricultural School" - immigrants from the department of agriculture, which made the production of food and goods, which in Hung Fane are related to the first and second of the eight most important public affairs (BA Zheng) , "School of Small Issuctiveness" - immigrants from low-bit officials who had to collect information about the sentiments among the people on the basis of "street robs and road rumors".

Evaluating the latest school (who was more folklore than philosophical character and producing "fiction" - Xiao sho) as not worthy of attention, the authors of this theory recognized the nine remaining schools "mutually opposite, but forming each other" (Xiang Fan Er Xiang Cheng) . Going to one goal with different ways and resting on a general ideological basis - "Six Canons" ("Liu Jing", see "Shi San Jing"). From the conclusion, it followed that the diversity of philosophical schools is a forced consequence of the collapse of the common state system, naturally eliminating in the restoration of such and returning philosophical thought into the unifying and standardizing Confucian bed.

Despite the refusal to consider the "School of Small Issuctive" as a philosophical, in "and Wen Ji", a decassion of a set of philosophical schools was implicitly preserved, since the "military school" (BIN-Jia) was allocated to a special section, which, in accordance with the general theory, was presented Educated immigrants from the military department. The origins of this ten-membered classification are traced in encyclopedic monuments of the III-II centuries. BC. "Lui-Shi Chun Qui" ("Western and Autumn Mr. Lui") and Huainan-Tzu "(" [Treatise] of the teacher from Huainani ").

Created during the formation of the centralized empire Han, whose name became the ethnonym of the most Chinese people, calling himself Han, the theory of Liu Blue - the Ban GU in traditional science found the status of classical. In the future, throughout the history of China, its development continued, the special contribution to which Zhang Xue-Cheng and Zhang Bin-Lin were made. In the Chinese philosophy of the XX century. It was resolutely criticized Hu Shi, but, on the contrary, supported and developed by Feng Yu-Lanem, who came to the conclusion that six major schools created representatives of not only different professions, but also of different types of personality and lifestyle. Confucianism formed intellectual scientists, moisband - knights, i.e. Wearing warriors and artisans, Taoism - Hermits and recluses, "School of Names" - Ritimens-Polemists, "School of Dark and Light [Miro-forming Benefits]" - Occultists and Numerologists, Lead - Politicians and rulelists.

Although after creating a classification, Liu Bay - Ban GU arose schemes with an even large number of items, in particular in the official history of the Sui Dynasty (581-618) "Sui Shu" (VII century), 14 philosophical schools are listed, a really significant role in the historical and philosophical The process was played by six of them, allocated already in Shi Ji and now recognized by such a majority of specialists.

4. The rod role of Confucianism.

And in the "axial time" of the origin of Chinese philosophy, and in the era of the "rivalry of a hundred schools", and even more so at the next time, when the ideological landscape has lost such a magnificent diversity, Confucianism played a central role in the spiritual culture of traditional China, so his story is a rod for The whole history of Chinese philosophy or at least the part of its part, which begins with the Han era. With the emergence of the present time the history of Confucianism in the very general divided into four periods; The beginning of each of them is associated with the global socio-cultural crisis, the way out of which Confucian thinkers were invariably found in theoretical innovation, following the archer forms.

First period: VI - III centuries. BC. The initial Confucianism emerged in the middle of the I thousand BC, when China was weagletized by endless wars, which made decentralized states conducted with each other and with the attackers from different sides "barbarians". In the spiritual plan there was a decomposition of the early History of Religious ideology, undermined by the relics of daughter (Inisk) beliefs, nonoshistanist (Prodododysk) cults and inocultural trends, to the median states of their aggressive neighbors. The reaction to this spiritual crisis was the canonization of the confusion of ideological maintenance of the Rannezhou Past, imprinted primarily in the text of "Schi" ("Shu") and "poems" ("Shi"), and the result is the creation of a fundamentally new cultural education - philosophy.

Second period: III century. BC. - X in. AD The main stimulus of the formation of the so-called Han Confucianism was the desire to restore the ideological departure, lost in the fight against new-forming philosophical schools, primarily by Taoism and Leganism. The reaction was, as before, retrograde in form and progressive essentially. With the help of ancient texts, first of all, "change" ("and") and "majestic sample" ("Hong Fan"), the Confucianis of this period led by the Dong Zhong-Shu (II century BC) significantly reformed Own teaching, integrating the problems of its theoretical competitors to him: Methodological and Ontological - Taois and School Yin-Yang, political and legal - my shops and legists.

The third period: X-XX century. The emergence of neoconfucifyness was caused by another ideological crisis due to the confrontation of officialized confusion with a new competitor - Buddhism, as well as transformed by Taoism. In turn, the popularity of these teachings, especially in their religious and theoretical costs, was due to the socio-political cataclysms in the country. The answer to the Confucianians to this challenge was again the nomination of original ideas with references to the founders of their teachings, primarily Confucius and Men-Tzu.

The fourth period is the last and incomplete, started in the XX century. The new Confucianism that appeared at this time was the reaction already on global disasters and global information processes, expressed, in particular, in the rooting of China's alien Western theories in China. For their innovative rethinking, the Confucians again turned to the old Arsenal of Confucian and Neokonfutian constructions. The last one, the fourth form of Confucianism is most distinguished from all the others preceding it, first of all, because in the sphere of its integrative intentions it was extremely alien, even in essence the opposite spiritual material.

By the beginning of the XXI century. Contrary to recent prophecies on the "end of history" and the triumphal march of Western culture around the world, it turned out that fundamentally other ideological models not only continue to successfully exist in their original ranges, but also actively penetrate the west. The most radical and developed alternative to the fascinating "Faustic Soul" now offers yesterday as a colossusion in the clay feet China.

Instead of idealistic killing, or at least, smoothly concealing the live flesh in the XX century. The West switched to its demonstrative cultivation and appreciation, which corresponds to the fundamental principles of bodily and vitalistic oriented Ki-Thai, invented by Alchemy as the doctrine of the "philosophical stone" and "Elixir of Immortality" (Cynicarians - Dan), i.e. Macrobiotics, which occupied primarily by the extension of life, and aimed at the same purpose with erootologicity, nutrition, etc. The post-Christian secularized West was filled with the same rational naturalism.

The center of gravity of modern Western culture has moved from the "left-hand" region of ideas, expressed by alphabetic texts, in the "right-headed" region of visual images, very reminiscent of the total visualism of the aesthetic Chinese hieroglyphic. Theoretical foundations of the XX informational revolution. very quaistical. The binary arithmetic brightened to the creation of computer equipment, according to its Creator Leibnia, is typologically (and may be genetically) identical to the numerological system of the Gua (tri-, hexagrams), which is the kernel of the Chinese "book book" "Zhou and".

All of the above allows you to see in China and in general in the sinic civilization not only a promising challenger on a leading role in the upcoming scenario of geopolitical forces, but also a powerful carrier is miraculously adapted to modern global values \u200b\u200bof the original philosophy, synthesizing the highest achievements of ancient, traditionalist refined spiritual culture.

In such a historical perspective, more reliable than during his publication in 1948, it looks like the prediction of one of the world's best constructions of the Chinese philosophy of Feng Yu-Lanya: "The highest values \u200b\u200bthat a person comes into contact with philosophy, even more often acquired through religion, for Not mixed with imagination and superstition. In the world of the future, the place of religion will take philosophy. It follows from the Chinese tradition. "

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Chinese civilization - one of ancient civilizations on the ground. In the process of its development, it passed several stages, from primitive society to China, not cease to surprise the whole world with their inexhaustible spiritual and economic potential. But the Chinese civilization is interesting for us also to what she managed throughout his history, despite the numerous wars and shifts of dynasties, to preserve cultural continuity. This lecture is designed to introduce listeners with the earliest stage of the formation of religiosity in ancient China and thereby open the door to the treasury of centuries-old Chinese spirituality.

Confucius, the most famous Chinese philosopher, had a chance to live in a difficult time for China's internecine wars and economic rules, when old ethical and religious ideals endured full collapse. It threatened by the inevitable death of Chinese civilization, but the Confucius and his students managed to create ethical and religious teachings, which blinked all society and became the basis of the construction of the Great Ancient Chinese Empire. Confucian ideals are still a solid foundation of everyday life not only in China, but also in the whole Far Eastern region. In this lecture, we will consider the transformation process of early Chinese beliefs that occurred in Confucianism, and also get acquainted with the main Confucian cults and rites.

The family still remains an important element of public life. It is in the family that the first human socialization takes place. It is not surprising that the family is always, in all societies and at all times paid considerable attention. This lecture tells about the specifics of family and marital relations in ancient China.

For the philosophy of ancient China as a whole, a materialistic view of man and nature was characteristic. Only Daoov appears the idea of \u200b\u200bimmortality, however, he should not be understood in the spirit of the Christian eternal life of the human soul. This lecture will talk about the specifics of the understanding of immortality in ancient China, as well as about finding funds to achieve it.

Taoism in our time is one of the three main religions in China. Considerable success, Taoist practices use and outside of China, and from the middle of the 20th century we can talk about the present boom of the popularity of Taoism in Western Europe and America. In this lecture, it will be described about the formation and development of the actually religious practices of Taoism.

Lecturer - Lyudmila Krathtop is a historian of philosophy, teacher.

Cost - 300r. For visiting the lecture.