What are the distorted perverted memories. Rafting (false memories)

This served to the emergence of a huge number of work on false memory, the authors of which tried to answer questions about how it arises and how to avoid it.

You do not have to doubt that people can be made to believe that certain events really happened, especially if they are easily sustainable, and children are such. Marriage and co-authors interviewed children at different time intervals after medical examination (Bruck, CECI, Francoeur & Barr, 1995). The main question was whether the doctor was watched, which was not really. When the question sounded like this: "Doctor looked into your ear, isn't it?", Many positive answers were received, and over time their number has increased.

In another study, adults inspired that in childhood they were either lost in the shopping center, or overturned the bowl with the punch at the wedding (LOFTUS, 1993; Loftus & Piclrell, 1995). In the review of such studies, Wade and Garry (Wade & Harry, 2005) report that, while most people are able to withstand such suggestions, on average, 37% of the subjects are not only amenable to them, but also share very detailed and alive memories of Such incidents. Considering that patients with such psychological problems as depression or disorder of food behavior are dreaming to cure, and most psychotherapists sincerely believe that the path to healing lies through the identification of violence in childhood, do not have to doubt that the potential for creating false memory is evident .

However, no one denies that violence in childhood takes place or that it will not be forgotten to at least somewhat. Loftus (LOFTUS, 1994) notes that 19% of the victims of undisputed violence report on partial forgetting, while Brown and co-authors (Brown, Scheflin & Whitfield, 1999), examined 68 cases, write that almost all victims have demonstrated some forgetting.

We will return to the question of stress and amnesia, and now it may be enough to say that the potentially memory of the militia, especially in a state of extreme suggestibility, and there is reason to believe that it is the suggestibility of a very characteristic of a psychotherapist-patient relationship. That is why the reports of "newly acquired memory" should be treated with special caution. Especially since even if violence and took place, it is clear that the awareness of this fact is not guaranteed by the patient.

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Paramnezia

Paramnezia - a violation of memory for which false memories are characterized.

general information

Paramenesia, dismesecia (hypomensions and hypermnezia), as well as amnesia are the main pathologies of memory. In contrast to steel disorders, paramnezia is characterized by no weakening or loss of memory, but its distortion. For the first time this term was used by Emil Farter in 1886. The scientist interpreted it as "in memory".

With paramnezia, there may be mixed with past and current events or real and fictional (read, seen) memories. Often a person attaches too much importance to his role in situations that happened in the past.

In psychology, paramnezia is inaccurate or erroneous reproduction of autobiographical facts.

The reasons

Short-term single episodes of memory breakdown (dismnesia or paramnezia) may be the result of stress, strong overwork or affect. If the attacks are systemic in nature, they may indicate the organic lesion of the brain, in particular those of its structures that are responsible for memory.

• ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke;
• cerebral paralysis;
• atherosclerosis of large arteries;
• card and brain injuries;
• tumors in the brain;
• schizophrenia;
• paranoid psychosis;
• vascular dementia;
• shenile identity changes;
• alzheimer's disease;
• paraphrenic syndrome;
• corsakov syndrome.

In the absence of damage to the central nervous system, paramnesis may have a psychological character. Most often, it is observed at a young age and is expressed in the replacement of unpleasant events on positive either in the appearance of false memories that are justifying the current actions. Usually such "deceptions of memory" arise against the background of a complex of inferiority, lability and pronounced dependence of the personality from the opinion of others.

Symptoms

Paramnezia manifestations include many different quality memory perversions. Depending on their specifics, several types of this disorder are distinguished. Paramnezia include:

The main symptom of pseudoordiniscence - a person issues past events for real. He describes the facts from ordinary life, which actually happened, but at another time, and do not belong to the current situation. PseudoMemminiscence is typical for dementia, Corsakov syndrome and other states accompanied by hypomensions.

The main manifestation of feedback is the transformation of real memories by making fictional elements in them (objects, actions). Prices of feedback:

• replacements - filling gaps in memory with real events from other time periods;
• exposal - transfer of early childhood events in recent memories;
• fantastic - memories of fantastic events in which the patient participated in his opinion;
• delusional is distortion of memories by making delusional episodes in them;
• hallucinatory - addition to the descriptions of the events by fragments of visual and auditory hallucinations.

Sign of cryptomosis - perception of read, heard or seen as actually experienced. As a rule, cryptomosis is combined with different species Amnesia. At the same time, patients are poorly focused in time and space, quickly get tired, but they retain acquired knowledge and skills well. Cryptomosis occurs during sedenive psychosis, brain damage and cerebral atherosclerosis.

Fantasms are memories in which hallucinatory events are laid. They arise in people with a split personality and schizophrenia. Fantasms are distinguished by rudeness and absurdity, and in some cases - an intriguing plot.

Reducing amnesia (dual perception) is expressed in repetition of memories: a person seems to be that the same events occur several times. He experiences an incomplete "dejum".

False recognition is manifested in the erroneous identification of people, items and places. In severe cases, a person cannot learn close and reflected in the mirror.

Diagnostics

Diagnosis of dismnesia and paramnezia is aimed at identifying the underlying disease. It includes the following surveys:

• collection of anamnesis;
• psychological tests that allow to assess the level of memory, as well as the adequacy of the perception of reality;
• MRI brain, which makes it possible to visualize pathological changes in various structures of the brain and the functional activity of its zones;
• blood analysis.

Treatment

Directions of treatment of paramnezia depend on the specifics of leading pathology. In addition to means acting on the cause of the cause of brain damage, nootropic drugs are used - aminal, piracetam, glycine, nootropyl. They contribute to the acceleration of the reconstruction of CNS cells and improving the circulation of cerebral structures. Also prescribed vitamins and antioxidants.

In case of paramnezia, patients need psychological assistance and creating a favorable environment that excludes stressful factors.

Forecast

The forecast for the development of paramnezia depends on its causes. In most cases, adequate treatment allows you to adjust memory violations. The appearance or enhanced fantashes along with nonsense and hallucinations indicates the deterioration of the patient's condition.

Prevention

Prevention different species Paramnezia is to prevent organic CNS damage.

Syndrome of false memory

Syndrome of false memory

The young woman complained to a psychotherapist for malfunction in the spiritual sphere, in particular, to weaken the memory of the psychotherapist helped her "restore memory", and she "remembered" that when she was 13 years old, her teacher raped her, she became pregnant and was forced to make an abortion of witnesses, It is not confirming her right, no, it is known that at the age of 13 she has not yet started the menstrual cycle and she could not get pregnant, but it did not embarrass this, she began to pursue the teacher, sued him to court decided that the court decided to restore the depressed memoirs " It cannot serve as evidence of the defendant's faults of the defendant to serve as evidence of the defendant's guilt.

Since the time of Freud, no one doubts that the memory of unpleasant events can be suppressed and displaced at such depths of the unconscious that not every psychotherapist will be able to extract it from there. The law-abiding citizen in the attack of rage kills another and does not even leave the crime scene: he forgot that he himself, and in full confidence that she accidentally stumbled upon the corpse, causes the police. A woman who really became a victim of violence cannot be explained from where she has bruises and bruises. All these cases of psychogenic amnesia.

But even more common in our days, the reverse phenomenon - false memory syndrome, the origin of which is connected not so much with the mental disorder, as with suggestion and self-sustainment. Most often, his topic is sexual harassment in childhood from parents, close relatives, teachers, buddies. In many cases, these memories are born in conversations with a psychotherapist, whose assumption becomes for the patient with the memory and deeply rooted in his soul a false memory serves as a source of family tragedies - the alienation of children from parents, divorces, work loss.

"We know that there are hundreds and thousands of cases of false memories, and that many families are destroyed thanks to them," says Harold Lifa, a psychiatrist from Philadelphia. "And we know, alas that many therapists, focusing on such memories, missed the trueness of true. Problems of their patients are not found in adulthood a lot of patients talking from the memories inspired by him! Unfortunately, it often happens too late. "

Gale McDonald, a resident of the Canadian province Ontario, wrote recently a book "How to provoke diseases." She tells her how she was convinced almost under hypnosis that the cause of her emotional

problems - long-standing sexual harassment from the father of the psychotherapist informed her that she had multiple personality violations - a diagnosis that McDonald writes, he put more than a hundred patients

False memories prompted her to part with his family. She began to torment the nightmares. She began to write in all newspapers and magazines stories about the event, allegedly "who had fallen a fatal imprint on her fate." She stopped there and began to look like a corpse. All this would not end in good, if one smart psychiatrist did not put her another diagnosis - "post-tramatic stress as a direct result of therapy" - and did not help her understand that her so-called memory was false

At the recent conference on false memory syndrome Elizabeth Loftus, Professor of the psychology of the University of Washington in Seattle, told how easy to inspire a person what was not really. The series of leading issues, skillfully formulated proposals - and ready in one experiment psychologists easily convinced adults of his participants, which in childhood they were hospitalized with acute pain, and that when they were five years old, they once lost in the mall. Some experiment participants complemented this "resurrected" allegedly memories of many details

The same thing happened with preschoolers whom the psychologist from Cornell University of Stephen Seisi ascended weekly about the imaginary event. At the tenth week, they themselves told him about this event, embraced his new detail the event was simple: the child was suggested that he put his hand in a mousetrap, she slammed him, and he had to be taken to the hospital, where they know what to do in such cases not to parents, Neither experimenters were able to dissuade half the children and inspire them that there was no mousetrap.

People, prone kfepression, hysteria and some other impairment of the psyche and the emotional sphere, are unusually susceptible to suggestion and are always ready to mix fudge with reality. Professional psychiatric organizations are not afraid of alarm. They caution their colleagues-psychotherapists from the thoughtless use of various techniques alleged memory recovery, in which the pointer is simply inspired by the memory of an event that the psychotherapist is believable. Especially the memory of children's sexual injury The Royal Board of Lawyers in Canada believes that these techniques are generally not available in therapeutic practice.

"Deceptions of memory" with paramnezia

The term of paramnezia was introduced by the German psychiatrist Emil Martured in 1886 to designate memory deceptions. He highlighted the three main varieties of paramnezia. He called the first kind of "simple in memory", referring false memories of imaginary events. The second variety is the associated cheating of memory when a person who sees someone for the first time, claims that he has already seen it before (reproducing paramnezia). The third type is paramnezia, in which the new situation is perceived as a detailed duplication of the previously occurring situation (dejavu). Today, the classification of memory deceptions is much wider.

Memory perversion

In psychiatry, the name of the paramnezia occurred from Greek. The words "Para" - "about" and "mnesia" - "Memory". These are pathological disorders of memory, which are distinguished by false and distorted memories.

In psychology is known for its analogue of paramnezia. This term psychologists call distorted, inaccurate or erroneous reproduction of facts and events in autobiographical memories. The cause can be affect, stress, chronic or acute fatigue.

According to E. Farthenina Paramnezia are divided into:

In modern psychology, the paramnezium classification includes fantasms, confancy, cryptomosis, which reducercing paramnezia, pseudo-beerminiscence and false recognition. Consider them in more detail.

False memories

PseudoMemminiscence (with Greek. "False memory") - replacement rates with a household plausible plot. This is a kind of "memories" of unreal events, hallucinations of human memory.

PseudoMemminiscence is often combined with serious memory impairments (such as amnesia, hypomensions). Symptoms of such disorder occur during organic diseases of the brain, paralyan and paraphrane syndromes.

Illusions of memory

Confatabuli (from lat. - "Derevision") is a distorted memory of real events. Such paramnezies are a product of pathological imagination or creativity, facing the past that pops up in consciousness in the form of memories. These symptoms are observed with certain psychosis, Corsakov syndrome, paraffrencies, schizophrenic nonsense.

Select different form of confancy:

• Emnissic. Illusions of memory are fixed on the past;
• Mnemonic. Illusions of memory that are associated with the events of the present;
• Fantastic. In memory, individual imaginary fragments pop up;
• Crazy. Rappations with the transfer of fantastic or ordinary nonsense in an earlier period;
• Onritic. They can provoke anneroid, delirium, exit from the twilight state of consciousness;
• Spontaneous. Accompany the psychosis of Korsakov;
• Suffered (induced). There are with Alzheimer's disease.

Borrowed memories

Cryptomosis is such a disorder of memory, in which other people's memories (read, seen, etc.) are transferred from the past to the present. Such paramnezia people consider their creativity with the original product. Cryptomosis in something resembles dejas, but arises when memories, not perception. Cryptomosis occurs during sedenive psychosis, the pathological body of the brain, cerebral atherosclerosis.

Such a mental phenomenon like cryptomosis should be distinguished from plagiarism. So, the plagiarism is called conscious and targeted assignment of the product of creativity of another person, and in the case of cryptomosis, this happens unconsciously.

Pathological fantasy

Fantasms - pathological outstanding fantasy, in some cases combined with other memory disorders. Fantasms are divided into paralytic and hysterical.

Paralytic essentially resemble fantastic confabulation, differing only rudeness and absurdity. Hysterical is distinguished by an unusual and intriguing plot, sometimes with an erotic population.

Double perception

Czech psychiatrist and neuropathologist A. PIK described in 1901 such a phenomenon as a radiating paramneosis. The same events occur for a person as if several times. Sometimes such paramneosis is accompanied by anterograd amnesia.

A common form of redupplicating paramnezia is emenezia. With echonesia, there is a doubling of the experiences of ordinary life when a person is confident that events are repeated. Emenezia is often found in the writings of peak. One patient, whom A. Peak observed, said that she had seen three peaks today. Emenezia occurs during paralysis, psychosis, dementia, Corsakov syndrome.

Error learning

False recognition is called erroneous recognition of persons or objects, terrain, premises or even themselves (for example, a person does not recognize himself in reflection). With strong memory violations, the recognition of relatives and loved ones is disturbed. Most often occurs during schizophrenia.

The occurrence of paramnezia often leads an increased suggestibility of a person, infantilism of psyche, certain emotional features and lack of criticality, therefore, personal growth and work with a psychotherapist contributes to the prevention of this state.

What is false memory

False memory is a normal disorder cognitive processWhen it may seem that something that was not in reality was actually happening. Unreal, invented experience, which he entrenched in consciousness as real.

History of the study of false memory

Before talking about false memory, it should be understood that it is the phenomenon of a person reasonable as a memory.

The main causes of false memory

The American writer Mark Twain with him inherent in humor spoke that "when I was young, I remembered absolutely everything: and what was, and what was not. But I am older, and soon I will remember only the last. " In these words, you can catch a hint that with the age of memory weakens, and often a person issues an event for reality, which actually did not happen to him.

• Undeveloped memory in children under 3 years old. The child's body only becomes. The frontal shares of the brain responsible for the formation of short-term and long-term memory are not well developed. The baby simply cannot memorize the information for a long time, and if it retains, just part (fragment) of events. Therefore, the memories when the adult suddenly "strains" and gives out that it is very small, let's say, kidnapped, quite often unreliable. Although the person himself can sincerely believe that this happened to him in fact.

Varieties of false memory

Man remembers external world With vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. These basic five feelings underlie human memory. By a memorization method, it can be a motor, figurative, emotional and verbal logical. All of these 4 species are closely interconnected.

1. Visual. The man got into an insignificant atmosphere, but it seems to him that, for example, this table and flowers on the windows he had already seen before. It calms down and does not make nervous. A variety of false visual memory should be considered emotionally-shaped, when the imaginary image appears in bright colors, which can cause a rapid reaction.

If the bouts of pseudopamy are rare, they do not have a lot of influence on the life of the individual. But if they repeat often, this is an indicator of unhealthy processes in the life of the body, in particular the brain. In this case, they talk about a painful memory disorder.

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Manifestations of false memory as psyche disorders

When false memories are dominated in the memory of a person, you should talk about false memory syndrome (SLP). It defines all sides of the individual's life. And this is already a violation of memorization processes, a painful manifestation, which doctors call the paramnezia that translated from Greek means "incorrect memory". It often occurs in neuropsychiatric diseases caused by external (exogenous) factors. And provoked by psychosis arising from various diseases of internal organs or intoxication of the body.

• False vague memories (pseudoMemminiscence). The real events of the distant past, usually they concern personal life experience are perceived as what happened in the present. Suppose a man in childhood experienced a burning offense. She constantly horrified the soul and led to an unexpected painful effect: it became perceived as what happened recently. Such memory violations are manifested with different diseases of the Central nervous system and peculiar to people of mature age.

Features of manipulation of false memory

The memory has its gray zones. Experts know about it, no wonder in recent years, hot discussions flared up, whether it is possible to intervene in the psyche of a person, forcing him to remember what, perhaps, there was no time in his life. Such manipulations with memory, when suddenly "recall" what was not in reality may have far-reaching consequences not only for a particular individual, but also for society as a whole.

What is false memory - look at the video:

False memory is a little learned phenomenon of the human psyche, a well-known psychological phenomenon is not enough when an individual "recalls" events that did not actually happen. Such memories can be attributed to a protective reflex, a person's reaction to the still unexplored to protect against the possible stressful situation Or call me stupid and sympathy. On the other hand, the conscious manipulation of public consciousness turns people into an obedient herd. Suppose the historical facts and events (recent or "cases of long-lasting days") become false collective memory. The consequences of such aggressive interference in the psyche of a person can affect the most unforeseen way in the life of an individual and society.

Syndrome of false memory

Psychology. AND I. Dictionary directory / trans. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: Fair-Press. Mike Cordwell. 2000.

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Memory disorders

Memory disorders are a decrease or loss of memorization ability, as well as saving and reproducing memory stocks. Memory disorders are divided into dismnesia (memory weakness), amnesia (lack of memory) and paramnezia (memory deceptions).

During dismnesia, the memorization of current information deteriorates, first of all names, numbers, definitions, which is especially noticeable in the conditions that require a quick response. The memory of the past is poorly in the details of the events, decreases, forgetting their sequence and dating.

Amnesia distinguish: retrograde amnesia - falling out of memory fully or partially events of days, months and even years of age directly preceding the present disease; Anterograd amnesia - falling out of memory for hours, days, weeks of all events, following immediately after the disease; Reproductive amnesia - the inability to recall the necessary name, number, date, definition at the right moment; Fixing amnesia is the impossibility of memorizing current events; The progressive amnesia - loss of memorization ability and gradually increasing the emptying of memory reserves occurring in a certain sequence - first of all the recently acquired memory reserve (events of the last years) is lost, the reserves of the memory of the distant past (middle-aged, youth, childhood) are beginning to be stitched and finally , the reserves of memory of the entire lived life disappear.

Paramnezia is divided into confancy (false memories) and cryptomesia (memory distortion). When confibulations, valid events are forgotten, and their place is filled with fiction. The latter may concern the everyday issues - household events of current life, may have a fantastic content, and in some cases (among the elderly) are exhausted by their childhood and adolescence - extensive corrections. Intensively pronounced and long-term fantastic confancy content is called corrective. Here is usually noted that or another degree of increased mood. Memory disorders are more often small. Cryptomesia - memory distortion, in which read, seen in a dream or heard seems to be patients with themselves in reality.

The combination of fixation amnesia, retrograde amnesia and confabulation forms Corsakovsky syndrome. With it, patients disoriented in place, time and surrounding their faces. Characterized lethargy, increased fatigue, deaptability. Mood often with a tint of euphoria and carelessness. Despite sharp changes in memory, previously acquired knowledge is preserved, often up to complex.

Memory disorders are characteristic primarily for various organic diseases of the central nervous system. The main disease is treated.

What is paramnezia: false memories, cryptomosis and other types of disorders

Permnezia: "Okolovnament", or on a false trace of "parallel memory".

So he is arranged, the person that herself is like this, it is always not enough. And therefore, in childhood, he, as if the Lord God, seeks to speed himself on the whole universe, be everywhere, to participate in everything.

It is all - in the thirst of wonders and magical feats - but in the end, the old age is always poisoned by Tsania: he could do it, and it was not really encouraged. For in the age of young and mature - when everything can be - all sputing on attempts and efforts to seize living space (with subsequent zealous security) - Was it up to the dream?!

But with what it did not come true, it is not so easy to part. It is life. It comes in dreams, in fantasies - and now my own personality is intensified in the row readable novelwatching the film ...

For the fact that he did not come true is eager for his incarnation. At least in the form of artificially - and skillfully called virtual sensations.

Not encompade in a measured-stable life, in the moments of despair it comes to mind in the form of false memories - memory perversions, often - a very clean-free device.

Well, there is not enough personality what is! There is not enough paints, smells, bodily sensations, sounds!

And then the false memories of all this carefully supplies it: take - and fucking, dozh, feed!

Paramnezia - the taste of non-existent life

Paramenesia ("parallel", false memories) - a frequent attribute of neurological and mental illness. But this is not necessarily so.

In certain manifestations, it can be peculiar to the individuals creatively artistic (or simply excessively sensitive and impressionable).

She is inherent and "specially created" for her age - children and senile. The ages, when else - or already - there is not enough strength to create in matter.

The cause of the state may be chronic, inexpressive intoxication (both such as alcoholism and due to chronically current infection, for example, with tuberculosis).

In short, paramnesis - the essence and the lot of powerless to create physical life. But - only those who already know (or even remember) her taste.

And on the basis of this memory and knowledge, they create a new life - life based on false memory. With you (not realized in the life of true) in all major roles.

But the major roles there are a great set. It means that the options for "the development of the plot" in order to be able to play them all should exist no less.

And they exist. Here they are.

Classification "Remote Memory"

At the moment, the following memory disorders include paramnezia:

• cryptomine (cryptomosis);
• echief (echnese);
• confable (or feedback);
• pseudoMemminyscent (or pseudo-preserminiscence);
• fasamotic (or fantasms).

Cryptomosis: and I am not me, and not my memory

With this form of false memory, 2 options for living symptom complex are possible.

False memories are a psychological phenomenon in which a person "remembers" the events that did not actually happen. False memories are often discussed in court cases concerning sexual violence against children. This phenomenon was originally investigated by Pierre Pierre Jean and Sigmund Freud. Freud wrote the work of Etiology of Hysteria, which was spoken of depressed memoirs, about children's sexual injuries in their attitude to hysteria. Elizabeth Loftus is a leading researcher in the field of memory recovery and false memories from the moment of its research career in 1974. With false memory syndrome, false memory is present as the prevailing part of a person's life, affecting his character and everyday life. False memory syndrome differs from false memories, since the syndrome has a strong impact on the human life, while false memories may not have such a fundamental effect. The syndrome enters into force, because a person believes that his memories are real. Nevertheless, the study of this syndrome is controversial, and the syndrome is not identified as a mental disorder, and, therefore, also excluded from the diagnostic and statistical guidance on mental disorders. False memories are an important part of psychological studies due to their connection with a large number of mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder.

Manipulation with memory content with language

In 1974, Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer conducted a study in order to study the influence of the language on the development of false memories. The experiment included two separate studies. In the first test, 45 participants were distributed randomly, and they were given to see the various videos in which the automobile accidents were recorded, while in separate video there were collisions at a rate of 30, 50 or 65 kilometers per hour. After that, the participants were given to fill out the questionnaire. In the questionnaire they wondered: "How quickly drove cars, before they crashed into each other?". The questionnaire always wondered the same question, with the exception of the verb used to describe the collision. In different questionnaires, the words "crashed" were used, "crashed", "collided", "hit", or "in touch". Participants assessed the collisions of all speeds on average from 56 km / h to just below 64 km / h. If the actual speed would be the main factor in the assessment, it would be possible to assume that participants would show lower estimates for lower speeds during collisions. Instead, the word used to describe the collision is not at all the speed itself seemed better predicted the speed estimate. In the second experiment, participants also showed video with a car accident, but the main method of manipulation was the wording in the next questionnaires. 150 participants were randomly distributed to three groups. Participants from the first group asked the same question as in the first study, using the verb "broke". In the second group, the word "crashed" sounded in the question. The last group did not ask about the speed of broken cars. Then researchers asked the participants, whether they saw a broken glass, knowing that there was no broken glass in the video. The answers to this question showed that something, the participants were noticed by broken glass, very depended on the verb used. A large number of participants in the group that was told that the cars were "crashing," said that they saw broken glass. In this study, the starting point in the discussion was the question of whether the words used to express the issue can influence this answer. Secondly, the study indicates that the formulation of the issue can give people expectations to previously ignored details, and, consequently, the incorrect interpretation of our memories. This indication supports the existence of false memory as a phenomenon.

Correction of data in an eyewitness report

The meta-analysis of the studies of the Loftus language manipulation shows that the effects of the phenomenon affect the process of marking and human memory products. Even the slightest change in the question, for example, in Artikle, can change the answer. For example, if you ask a person, he saw "this sign" (Anyklle The), and not "some kind of sign" (Article A), if the sign really had a place, then a person will rather be inclined to answer that he saw a sign.

Influence of adjectives on eyewitness

The choice of adjectives can imply the characteristics of the object. Harris's 1973 study examines differences in responses to the question of the growth of the basketball player. Respondents randomly distributed, and asked them a question: "How high was a basketball player?" Or "how low a basketball player was?". Instead of asking participants simply about the growth of the basketball player, the adjective was used, which had the effect on numerical results. The difference in average growth rates, which was predicted, was 10 inches (250 mm). The adjectives used in the proposal can cause either exaggerated or the accurate response respondent.

Answer to meta-analysis

It was suggested that Loftus and Palmer did not control external factorscoming from individual participants, such as emotions of participants or alcohol consumption, along with many other factors. Despite criticism, such as this, this specific study is very relevant and for court cases regarding false memories. The Loftus and Palmer Automobile Research allowed the Devlin Committee to create a report of Devlin, who suggested that eyewitness testimony is not reliable by themselves.

Memory call reliability

Prespposions

Prespposions are indirect hints used by choosing words. Suppose you ask a person: "What shade of blue was a wallet?". He, translated, thinks: "The wallet was blue. What was the shade? " The phrase provides for the estimated "fact". This assumption provides two separate effects: true effect and false effect. The true effect assumes that the object in question does exist. At the same time, the respondent's memory is enhanced, becomes more easily accessible, and it is easier to extrapolate. With the true effect, the premises facilitate the memories of the detail. For example, it would be less likely that the respondent will remember that the wallet was blue if it did not indicate that the color was blue. The false effect suggests that the object in question has never existed. Despite this, the defendant is convinced of Nasty, thanks to which it is possible to manipulate his memory. A person can also change the answers to subsequent questions to save the logic of the narration. Regardless of whether the effect was true or false, the defendant is trying to meet the information provided, since it assumes that it is true.

Hypothesian arms

The constructions hypothesis is of great importance to explain the memory of memory. By asking the respondent, the question that provides the premise, the defendant "shoots" his memory according to this premise (if you recognize the fact of its existence). The defendant will remember the object or item. The hypothesis of the arrangement says that if the true part of the information provided can change the respondent's answer, then it is possible and relative to the false part of the information.

Skeleton theory

Loftus developed the theory of the skeleton after he conducted an experiment with the participation of 150 patients from the University of Washington. The skeleton theory explains the idea of \u200b\u200bhow memories work, with the help of two categories: acquisition processes and search processes. The acquisition processes occur during three separate stages. First, at the initial meeting, the observer chooses the stimulus on which he needs to focus. The information on which the observer may focus, in comparison with the information present in the situation, is very small. In other words, there are many things around us, and we can focus only on a small "plot" of information. Thus, the observer must focus on the focal point. Secondly, our visual perception must be translated into applications and descriptions. Statements represent a combination of concepts and objects; They are a link between the occurrence of an event and memory. Thirdly, perception is subject to any "external" information provided before or after interpretation. This subsequent set of information can change the memory. Processes for extracting information from memory occur in two stages. First, memory and images are regenerated. This perception depends on what focus chose an observer, along with the information presented before or after observation. Secondly, the binding is initiated by the description, "drawing pictures" to understand what exactly was observed. This search process leads either to accurate memory or to false memory.

Relational treatment

Removing the memory was associated with relational treatment of the brain. Combining two events (with respect to false memory, linking the evidence with the previous event), there are literal and abstracts. Literal views coincide with the event (for example, someone does not like dogs, because when he was five years old, he was bitten by Chihuahua), and abstracts correspond to the overall conclusions (for example, someone does not like dogs, because they are evil). In accordance with the theory of a fuzzy trace, which stars that false memories are stored in abstracts (which are extracting true and false memories), Storbeck & Clore (2005) wanted to learn how a change in mood affects the extraction of false memories. After using the tool for measuring associations to words called the Diz-Rhodrigra-McDelete paradigm, scientists manipulated the tested moods. The moods were either focused on positive, or on a negative, or did not affect them at all. The results suggest that more negative moods made critical parts stored in abstracts, less affordable. This would mean that false memories are less likely when a person is in a bad mood.

Restoration of memory with therapy

Restoration strategies

Memories restored by therapy becomes difficult to distinguish from simply depressed or previously suppressed memories. Therapists use strategies such as hypnotherapy, repeated interrogation, and libertile. These strategies can provoke the restoration of non-existent events or inaccurate memories. A recent report indicates that such strategies could cause false memories before the start of modern controversy on this topic, which took place in the 1980s and 1990s. Lawrence and Perry conducted a study to test the ability to call events from memory using hypnosis. Patients were placed in a hypnotic state, and then walked. Observers suggested that patients woke up with loud noise. Almost half of the subjects concluded that this conclusion is true, although it was not. Although, by therapeutic change in the patient's condition, they may have reason to believe that what they say is true. Because of this, the defendant had false memories. In 1989, the study of hypnabelnia and false memory divided accurate and inaccurate memories. When forming an open question, 11.5% of the subjects recalled the false event proposed by observers. In the multiple selection format, none of the participants claimed that the false event occurred. This result led to the conclusion that hypnotic suggestions produce shifts in focus, awareness and attention. Despite this, the subjects did not mix fantasies with reality. Restoring memory with theory of therapy is a common memory call subcategory, which opens up a pseudo-resection dispute. This phenomenon is determined freely and enters DSM. However, the syndrome assumes that false memories may be called syndrome when they have a great influence on the patient's life. These false memories can completely change the person and lifestyle of the patient. Technique "Lost-B-ticket" is another recovery strategy. Essentially, it is a pattern of repetition of assumptions. A person whose memory should be restored, continues to argue that he had such an experience, even if it could not be. This strategy can make a person remember that the event took place, despite the falsity of this allegation.

Court cases

Restoration of memory with theory of therapy has become a common practice in court cases, especially in relation to sexual violence. In the rame against Isabella, two therapists mistakenly prompted Holly Ramona, their patient, remember that she was subjected to sexual violence from his father. It was suggested that the therapist, Isabella, "implanted", this is the memory of Ramon after using the hypnotic preparation of the amital sodium. An almost unanimous decision of the judges was recognized by the negligence of Isabella in relation to Holly Ramon. This legal issue of 1994 played a huge role in recognizing the possibility of false memories. In another case, when false memories were used, they contributed to the fact that all charges were removed from the accused. Joseph Patzeli was accused of penetrating the house to a woman with the goal of sexual violence. Woman gave the police a description of the attacker shortly after the crime occurred. During the trial, the memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus showed that memory is erroneous, and that there was a lot of emotions that played a role in the description that the woman gave the police. Loftus published many studies in accordance with its testimony. These studies show that memories can be easily changed, and sometimes testimony may not be so reliable, as many believe. Despite the fact that there were many court cases in which there are false memories, it does not facilitate the process of distinguishing false and real memories. Reliable therapeutic strategy can help in this differentiation, or by avoiding well-known contradictory strategies, or by disclosing contradictions. In each case, the therapy for the extraction of memories was recognized as an unacceptable, and unreasonable from a scientific point of view. The fact that it is not always possible to say that recovered memories are true or false, means that the quality of evidence is weak. Objections against therapeutic memory recovery methods were challenged by comparing them with ethics of memory removal methods such as electrosusproy therapy. Harold Merki published an article on ethical issues of memory recovery therapy. He suggests that if the patient already has existing serious problems in life, it is likely that there will be a relatively strong "deterioration" of the memory call. This deterioration is physically parallel to emotional injury. Tears, screams and many other forms of physical suffering may be observed. The emergence of physical signs when memories in patients with relatively minor problems before therapy may be a sign of the potential falsity of the changed memory.

In children

If the child has survived the violence, it is uncharacteristic to disclose the details of the event. An attempt to indirectly provoke a memory call can lead to a conflict of an attribution source, for example, repeated interrogation of a child can cause him a consent response to satisfy adult issues. Stress imposed on a child may make it difficult to recover the accurate memory. Some people put forward a hypothesis that, since the child is constantly trying to remember the event, a large file is built out of sources from which memory can be extracted, including sources that potentially differ from genuine memories. Children who have never experienced violence with which there are similar memory recovery methods can tell about events that have never happened. If it is concluded that the child's memory is false, we see an error of type I. If we assume that the child does not remember the existing event, we see a type II error. One of the most noticeable obstacles to the revocation of memory in children is incorrect binding to the source, that is, poor decoding between potential sources of memory. The source can occur from actual perception, or from the induced and imaginary event. Young children preschool ageIn particular, faced with difficulties when you try to spend the difference between them. Lindson and Johnson (1987) came to the conclusion that even children approaching adolescent age face it, and also refer to the existing memory as a witness. Children are much more commonly confused by the source of memory.

Human memory constantly adapts and adapts to match the world. The artist A.R. Chopwood created an art project "Archive of false memories" to show how deceptive memory may be.
During the year, he collected people's stories about their false memories, which he turned into installation from photographs, paintings, sculptures and other items that resemble the past.
People told the artist about the most amazing false memories: from eating mice to the ability to fly.
One man was firmly sure that his girl's sister died at the reception at the dentist. He tried to keep all his visits to Dentistist secretly in order not to worry his girlfriend once again.
He wrote: "Once for dinner, she said that next week was going to the dentist. At the table became unusually quiet. My mother broke the silence, saying that it should be difficult for her after what happened to her sister. "
And this is not rare cases. Neurochnye say that many of our daily memories are created incorrect, since our view on the world is constantly changing.
Trick imagination
The famous experiment Elizabeth Loftus in 1994 proves that false memories are created quite easily. So, during the experiment, she managed to convince a quarter of the participants in the fact that they were lost in the shopping center when they were children.
The purpose of another similar experiment conducted in 2002 was to convince the participants in the fact that they flew in a balloon in childhood. Half of them believed it, seeing photographs that, in fact, were created in the PhotoShop program.
This work was conducted by Kimberly Weid from Warwick University (Britain). The artist Hopwood asked her to fly in a balloon, video and photo of this trip became part of his exhibition.
"I studied memory for more than ten years, and still surprised how our imagination makes us believe in what was really never, and how the brain creates illusory memories. The reason why our memories are so connected is that there is infinitely a lot of information in the brain. Our perception system is not created in order to notice absolutely everything that happens in the environment around us. Our memory fills the gaps by what we know about this world, "says Waid.
Lost keys
For the most part, false memories relate to everyday situations that do not have any consequences, not counting small disputes with a partner or friend about who has lost their keys again.
But sometimes false memories can lead to more serious consequences. For example, if evidence in court is based on false crime memories. Such cases have repeatedly led to an incorrect sentence.
Christopher Frenc from the University of London "Goldsmith" notes that we are all little aware of how unreliable human memory can be. And especially this is important in the legal and judicial spheres.
"Although psychologists and those who have studied in detail the question of false memories, know about their inaccuracy, the idea that it is not always necessary to rely on memory, still not taken into account in society. Some people are still confident that the memory works as a video camera. Others share the Freud's theory on the suppression of memories. It lies in the fact that if something terrible happens, a person does not remember this event, pushing it out of consciousness, and it goes to the subconscious, "he says.
Professor Frenc also participated in the art project about false memories. He hopes that the project will allow more people to realize how much memories of the event can disperse with reality.
His hope shares and A.R. Hopwood. He notes that he was interested to know how firmly people can be confident that it never happened in reality.
"In our installation there were mini portraits of people depicting their false memories. It turns out that coming to the exhibition, the only thing you learn about a person is what has never happened to him. This is an amazing paradox who inspires me as an artist, "he says.
Escape from tiger
Based on the results of another study, the mistakes of the human brain can sometimes serve as a good goal.
Sergio della Halah, cognitive neurochenicated from Edinburgh University (Scotland), says that sometimes thinking mistakes saves us life. Imagine that you are in the jungle and suddenly see how the grass moves. Most likely, you will think that somewhere nearby Tiger, and scrape.
A computer, for example, in 99% of cases will come to the conclusion that it is just the wind. If we behaved like a computer, it would be sooner or later they would be eaten by a predator.
"Our brain is ready to make 99 mistakes from 100, to save us once from the tiger. It is so, because the brain is not a computer. He makes a huge amount of incorrect conclusions. False memories are a sign of brain health. This by-product is a properly running memory system, which is easy to make amendments, "says Professor della Hala.
Original article: Melissa HogenBoom, - Why Does the Human Brain Create False Memories? BBC NEWS, September 2013
Translation: Eliseeva Margarita Igorevna
Editor: Simonov Vyacheslav Mikhailovich
Keywords: false memories, neuroscience, neuropsychology, brain, cognitive abilities
Photo source: unsplash.com

Sometimes our memories are erroneous. The brain plays with us all the time, and the tricks that miscarmaled them can mislead us that we are able to accurately reconstruct our personal past. In reality, false memories surround us.

False memories - This is the memory of things that we never experienced. It may be small memory errors, which, for example, make us think that we saw one road sign instead of (1), or major delusions, such as confidence that we once flew in a balloon, although this never There was no (2). Another frightening feature of false memories: they can be imposed on the outside. In the book "Peace, full of demons: Science - as a candle in the darkness" Karl Sagan claimed that the false memories implanting people are not just possible, but in fact very easy - the main thing is to correctly assess the level of gullibility of the person with whom you are dealing with. As an example, he led people who, at the insistence of doctors or hypnotists, really started to believe that they were abducted by UFOs, or remember the ill-treatment in childhood, which was never. For these people, the difference between memory and imagination became blurred, and events that have never happened, firmly stuck in memory as real. Participants in experiments could even extremely accurately and incredibly brightly describe these fictional events as if they had a place to be. Karl Sagan noted:

"Memory is easy to paint. False memories may be implanted even in consciousness, which does not consider themselves vulnerable and non-critical. "

As you can see, a very important feature of the psyche, which is at least worth it. To find out what new people would like to learn about this phenomenon, a criminal psychologist, a researcher of false memories (3) and the author of the book "The Memory Illusion" ("Illusion of Memory") Julia Show arranged a survey on Reddit and answered six of the most interesting, Her opinions, questions. The monocoiler translated her brief comments for you.

1. Is there a way to check whether our memories are real or false?

An analysis of scientific literature shows that as soon as a person is mastered by false memories, they are almost impossible to distinguish from the true memories stored in our brain.

This means that false memories have the same properties as any others, and no difference from memories of the events that actually happened. The only way to check them is to find reinforcing evidence for any particular memories that needs "verification."

2. Are there people who are more prone to the creation of false memories than others?

There are groups of people who are traditionally considered more vulnerable as, for example, personities with low IQ, children, teenagers, as well as people suffering from mental illness, such as schizophrenia, which themselves make it difficult for the owners of this disease "Monitoring reality". Essentially, anyone who is poorly separating the fact of fiction, with a greater probability will create false memories.

Nevertheless, as part of my research "normal" adults, I did not find any systematic personal differences between those who are inclined to form false memories and those who are not formed. I conducted a study taking into account the predisposition to fantasy, the fasteniness and differences in the types of "big five" in addition to testing on the floor, age and education. And did not find anything.

This does not mean that such personal vulnerabilities do not exist - probably they are, but maybe they are not as important as we assume. I am convinced that everyone may appear (and appear) false memories.

3. Where are false memories?

Everywhere. The question is not in where our memories become a lie, but in how false becomes our memories.

Integrated and comprehensive false memories of whole events are probably less common than partial (where we inaccurately reproduce only the details of the events that have occurred), but we have already filled out so many gaps between fragments of memories and made such a lot of assumptions that our personal past has been Essentially, just a lump of fiction.

4. What do you think can affect the consequences of your research on an existing justice system?

The consequences of research of false memory are very important for the criminal justice system. This makes doubt on our today's dependence on memories from suspects, victims, witnesses, even police officers and lawyers.

Now the memories can confirm or destroy the accusation. However, showing that the memories are unreliable in their essence, we set doubt on the very basis of how evidence is currently used in criminal proceedings. This puts the question of us whether we can truly be sure "outside the reasonable doubt" that someone committed a crime, in cases that rely solely on the memories of the participants in the process. It also shows us how easily unsuccessful interview methods / interrogation can create false memories. And it makes us rethink the existing police practices.

5. Can false memories be helpful or have positive consequences?

I think that false memories are a great consequence of a beautiful and complex cognitive system, the same system that allows us to have intelligence, live imagination and solve problems. In general, false memories are part of all this, and they are neither positive nor negative. They are just there.

They are considered "good" or not - also incredibly depends on the circumstances. For example, the situation in which the victim does not remember the part of the crime committed against it can be considered poor to investigate, but as a good for the victim.

6. Did some of the data that you got, on how do you use your own memories?

Definitely. I have always experienced a little awkwardness, since I constantly very badly remembered things that occur in my personal life. On the other hand, I always remember the facts and information well. In part, it reinforced my confidence that my study of false memories could work, because if my memory was so unreliable, my research could help those whose memory also does not work with a bang.

Although I have always been careful in assessing the accuracy of memory (as far as I remember, Ha!), Now I am convinced that no memoirs should trust. I am sure that we create our memories every day.

This is such a frightening, but beautiful idea that every day you wake up with a little different personal past.

Links to research

1. LOFTUS, ELIZABETH F.; Miller, David G.; Burns, Helen J. Semantic Integration of Verbal Information Into a Visual Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, Vol 4 (1), Jan 1978, 19-31.

2. Maryanne Garry, Matthew P. Gerrie. Who Photographs Create False Memories. Current Directions in Psychological Science Decept 2005 Vol. 14 NO. 6 321-325.

3. SHAW, J. & PORTER, S. (2015). CONSTRUCTION RICH FALSE MEMORIES OF COMMITTING CRIME. Psychological Science, 26 (3), 291-301.

Based on: "How False Memory Changes What Happened Yesterday" / Scientific American.

Cover: Paul Townsend / Flickr.com.