What are artificial languages. Abstract artificial languages
Introduction 1.
1. Opera Interlinguistics 3.
2. Classification of artificial languages \u200b\u200b4
3.The International Languages \u200b\u200b6
Conclusion 25.
References 27.
Introduction
Our thinking is inextricably linked with the language on which we are talking. It is not for nothing that a person mastered in some language if he can think on it.
Currently, the term "language" is understood more widely: they say about the "languages" of insects (dances of bees), animals (the marriage dances of birds, sound and echolocation communications at dolphins, etc.), languages \u200b\u200bof gestures, whistles, bonfires, drums; Languages \u200b\u200bof music, ballet, painting, etc. Of course, such use of the word "language" is not at all by chance. The fact is that, starting from the XIX century, the language more and more often began to be understood as a sign system, and now this point of view has become generally accepted.
Languages \u200b\u200bsuch as Russian, English and Swahili are called natural. Their origin is covered by the mrak of centuries and they develop mostly spontaneously. But there are artificial languages, such as volleyuk, Esperanto or less well-known solresol, Limpan and others. Artificial languages \u200b\u200binclude special languages \u200b\u200bof logic. These written languages \u200b\u200bwhose proposals are recorded in special alphabets.
The need for a language intermediary between nations has always existed. It can be said that the embryo was the consequence of the fact that people were aware, on the one hand, multilinguality, on the other hand, the unity of the human race and the need of mutual communication. Thanks to the Language Unity, the legend of the Babylonian pussy was created; Multilingualism was considered a disaster, was considered to be a divine punishment for human pride and arrogance. The role of Lingua Franca was performed by a language of a country: ancient Greek, Latin, French, and now - English. But this provision gives a lot of advantage of the country, on the shoulders of which the honorable and prestigious duty lay down. That is why it has long been in the minds of people originated the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an artificial language that would provide all equal opportunities.
Especially acute question stood in the XIX century. A huge number of worldwide projects appeared in response. But the only one, withstood the test of time (more than a hundred years), was the language of Esperanto. His creator Ludwig's renov was born in 1859 in the city of Bialystok, which was then part of the Russian Empire. It would seem that it was in Russia, in his homeland, it was necessary to appear more Worldwide followers. And for some time it was. Especially after the revolution, when the builders of the new society have not doubted that the World Revolution is born in the near future. Mass repressions of the 1930s collapsed on the adherents of Esperanto, which, naturally, accused of espionage. After this difficult period, the activities of Esperantists in the Soviet Union for a long time stalled. But it has grown and developed in the West. On Esperanto translated the most famous works of world classics, wrote the original works, satisfied the conference.
Today, in addition to linguistic scientists, writers, artists are equally accessible to the creation of artificial languages \u200b\u200b... Moreover, the development of the language model becomes a hobby. Worldwide "Society for Modeling Languages" (in the United States alone, a similar association for 1999 has about 20,000 members) take into their ranks of all - from amateurs to recognized scientists.
1. Opera Interlinguistics
The term Interlinguistics appeared in 1911 and was determined by his author, the Belgian scientist J. Maismans, as a science of "natural laws of formation of general auxiliary languages", under which he meant any languages \u200b\u200bcapable of acting as intermediaries of interledate and even intermediary communication, t . e. both natural and artificial languages. According to Maismans, the laws of the formation of natural international languages \u200b\u200bcould be transferred to both artificial intermediary languages.
Interlinguistics concentrates on the study of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bas one of the means to overcome the language barrier. In this regard, the tendency is revealed to comprehend the interledstics as a section of linguistics learning international languages \u200b\u200bin the context of the overall theory of interstate communication. For this period, the claims are characterized, according to which the subject of interledstics include the study of the processes of national languages \u200b\u200bin the modern era and the emergence of "internationalism", the development of artificial languages \u200b\u200bof various types and forecasting their structure, analysis of the experience of their functioning and determination of their functionality in relation to natural languages .
Thus, there is a desire to expand the research range of interlinguistics. However, while the central problem of the theory remains the study of artificial languages, which, if they received practical implementation in communication, are called planned languages. There are two approaches to the study of languages \u200b\u200bof this type.
In the first case, the theory applies to international artificial languages \u200b\u200bof any type, both implemented and not implemented in the practice of communication. This primary theory of S. Kuznetsov in relation to the language calls the theory of lingvopriation. Lingvopriation (language design) - building a language system conscious (not spontaneous) by. Attempts to create artificial languages, and in particular international, was already made in antiquity. The first project of such a language about which there is historical testimonies was an artificial language of the Greek philologist Alexarh (the referees of the IV-III centuries. BC), which he tried to apply the Uranopolis in the city founded. Theoretical analysis of lingvoproject problems begins only from Descartes (1629), and the practical verification of the principles of lingvoprojects - after the propagation of Volupyuk in 1879, and then Esperanto in 1887.
In the second case, the theory is secondary to the language and applies only to systems implemented in communications. This theory he calls the theory of the functioning of the planned language.
2. Classification of artificial languages
Distinguish:
Programming languages \u200b\u200band computer languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bfor automatic information processing using computers.
Information languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bused in various systems Information processing.
Formalized science languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bintended for symbolic recording of facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages \u200b\u200bof non-existent peoples created in fictional or entertainment purposes. The most famous are the elf language, invented by J. Tolkin, and the Klingon language from the fantastic series "Star Trek"
International auxiliary languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bcreated from elements of natural languages \u200b\u200band offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
Almost all theorists of modern interlingids divide artificial languages \u200b\u200binto two types - "a priori" and "aposteriory", the criterion of division is the lexical composition of the artificial language - respectively, "artificial" or borrowed.
Richard Harrison holds the following classification:
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof a posteriori type (Interlingua, Occidal, Lingwa de Planeta, etc.).
Modified natural language
Modified artificial language
System of interacting artificial languages
Language combined from close to the origin of natural languages
Language combined from heterogeneous natural languages.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof a priori type (IFKOUIL, RO (Language), Solresol, Bogomol, Chengley, Logan and Snogb, Elunti);
Recognizing speech activity
brain teaser
Do not imply speech activity
pazigraphs (symbol languages)
languages \u200b\u200bnumbers or notes
pazimology (gesture languages)
In addition to the classification of artificial languages \u200b\u200bin lexical composition, the purpose of their creation and structural composition is often taken into account.
M. Rosenfelder divides languages, using the criteria of structure and destination:
By structure:
european type
non-European type
For appointment:
brain teaser
auxiliary
experimental
3. Invalid international languages
Computer Language
The concept of a computer language (tracing with English. Computer Language), as a rule, refers to languages \u200b\u200bassociated with computer equipment.
Most often, this term matches the concept of programming language, but this compliance is not quite unambiguous. For example, markup languages \u200b\u200b(such as HTML) are not programming languages, but are defined to computer languages.
A computer language, like any other language, appears when you want to transfer information from one source to another. Programming languages \u200b\u200bcontribute to the exchange of information between programmers and computers, text marking languages \u200b\u200bdetermine the structure of documents that are clear for people and computers, etc.
Types of computer languages:
Programming Languages \u200b\u200b(C #, .NET, Basic, Pascal)
Information languages
Data Description Languages \u200b\u200b(SQL)
Markup languages \u200b\u200b(usually used to create documents)
Specification languages \u200b\u200b(for example: Cascading style sheets)
Application description languages \u200b\u200b(Verilog, VHDL, etc.)
Exchange Protocols (for example: Network Protocols)
Okidental
Ocidental is an international artificial language. He was proposed in 1922 by Edgar de Waale (Estonia). The language is based on international vocabulary, common to the main Western European languages.
The planned language created in 1921-1922. E. de (Background) Valem (1867-1948) in the city of Revel (now Tallinn). In 1949, the language accepts the name of Interlingle.
Ocidental is a posteriori system of naturalistic type. The dictionary is borrowed from living European languages, mainly Romanesque; The design of many words discovers the influence of French. Word formation is based on a pattern of natural languages, but simultaneously is ordered by the so-called rule de Val (the basis of the Presentation is formed by the infinitive by the omission of the end - (e) r.
The groups of regional supporters were formed mainly from the number of idiors who left the IDO in search of a more natural language. In 1928, the International Occidentalist Union was formed (Occidental-Union; from J949. The name of InterLingue-Union) and the Academy of this language. After the publication in 1951, the Language of Interlingu-Jala, many ocidentalists moved to this language. Currently, individual groups of occidalists are available in Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and a number of other countries. In the literature, Ocidental had limited use, however, the theoretical magazines "Kosoglott" (1922- 1926), "Cosmoglotta" (1927-1985) and others belong to the number of major interleduisan publications.
Artificial languages, iconic systems created for use in areas where the use of a natural language is less efficient or impossible. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bdiffer in the appointment, the range of specialization and the degree of similarity with natural languages.
Non-specialized general-purpose languages \u200b\u200bare international artificial languages \u200b\u200b(which are called planned languages \u200b\u200bif they have been implemented in communication; see interledstics, international languages). In the 17-20th centuries, about 1000 projects of such languages \u200b\u200bwere created, but only one of them received real use (Vapauk, Esperanto, IDO, Interlingua and some dr.).
In a functionality, such artificial languages \u200b\u200bare divided into logical (claiming human language reform as a means of thinking) and empirical (limited to the task of building a language as an adequate means of communication). In material relations, languages \u200b\u200bare a posteriori (borrowing lexical and grammar material from natural source languages) and a priori (deprived of material similarities with natural languages). Another classification parameter is the form of expression (manifestation) of the language material. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bhaving two ordinary forms of expression (sound and written) are called pazilanes. It is opposed to them, on the one hand, the systems of artificial languages \u200b\u200bhaving only one form of expression, for example, written (Pazigraphy) or gesture (Pazimology), and on the other - the system, striving for the infinite variability of the forms of expression: such is the "musical language" of salt-re- Salt J. Swider (1817-66; France), which could be expressed by the help of the notes corresponding to them sounds, numbers, gestures, spectrum colors, semaphore signals or flaple signaling, etc.
A distinctive feature of the class of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bis that their typology changes in time (while in natural languages \u200b\u200bit is of timeless character): In the initial period of linguerization, systems prevailed, logical on function and a priori material, but over time, the linguization focus gradually displaced in the direction of empiricism and recreation. The equilibrium point between multidirectional trends falls in 1879, when the first artificial language, implemented in communication, - Vapauk (created by I. M. Shleyer; Germany). In its system, logicalism is balanced with empiricism, and a prioritism with aposterioria. For this reason, Vapauk considers the language of a mixed logical-empirical and a priori-agothematory type: it bodies words from natural languages \u200b\u200b(English, German, French, Latin, etc.), but modifies them in order to simplify the pronunciation, eliminate the phenomena of homonymy and synonymy And do not give a hand to one source language over others. As a result, borrowed words lose experiment, for example, English WORLD\u003e VOL 'MIR', SPEAK\u003e Rük 'talk' (from here Volapük 'World Language'). Volapuka's grammar has a synthetic character (see syntheticism in linguistics), it includes a large number of nominal and verb categories (2 numbers, 4 cases, 3 persons, 6 times, 4 inclination, 2 types and 2 pledge). Practice has shown the complexity of using such a system in communication, and in the subsequent semiotic range of artificial languages \u200b\u200bis narrowed, they are increasingly approaching the type of natural languages.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bbegan to be created mainly on the basis of international vocabulary, with a certain streamlining of it on the autonomous rules of this artificial language (autonomist artificial languages) or conservation in the form as close as possible to natural languages \u200b\u200b(naturalistic artificial languages). The grammar of artificial languages \u200b\u200bbegan to be built according to analytical type (see analytics in linguistics) with a maximum reduction in the number of grammatical categories used. The stage of wide communicative use of posteriori artificial languages \u200b\u200bwas opened by the Language of Esperanto (Created by L. Rezoyofom in 1887; Poland), which remains the most commonly used of all existing artificial languages. Significantly smaller distribution had a language IDP (reformed Esperanto, created in 1907 L. De Befron, L. Kutyura, O. Esperesen, V. Ostvald et al.; France). Fame from naturalistic projects: Latino-blue-Flexion (or Interlingu-Peano; 1903, J. Peano), Okidenthal (1921-22, E. Val; Estonia) and Interlingua Jala (created in 1951 Association of the International Auxiliary Language under the guidance A. Gouda; USA). Synthesis IDO and Occidental is presented in the project Noviol Esperesen (1928; Denmark).
Lit.: Couturat L., Leau L. Histoire de la Langue Universelle. R., 1907; IDEM. Les Nouvellers Langues International. R., 1907; Drimen E. K. for the general language. M.; L., 1928; Rônai R. Der Kampf Gegen Babel. Münch., 1969; Bausani A. Le Lingue Inventate. Roma, 1974; Knowlson J. Universal Language Schemes in England and France 1600-1800. Toronto; Buffalo, 1975; Kuznetsov S. N. On the question of the typological classification of international artificial languages \u200b\u200b// Problems of interlinguistics. M., 1976.
S. N. Kuznetsov.
Specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bof various purposes - these are symbolic languages \u200b\u200bof science (languages \u200b\u200bof mathematics, logic, linguistics, chemistry, etc.) and languages \u200b\u200bof human and machine communication (algorithmic, or programming languages, operating system languages, database management, information, request-response systems etc.). General feature Specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bare a formal method of their description (definition) by the task of the alphabet (dictionary), the rules of education and the transformation of expressions (formulas) and semantics, i.e., the method of meaningful interpretation of expressions. Despite the formal definition method, these languages \u200b\u200bare mostly not closed systems, since the rules for the education of words and expressions allow recursion. Therefore, as in natural languages, the dictionary and the amount of text generated potentially infinite.
The beginning of the creation and application of specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be considered to be used in Europe from the 16th century of letter notation and symbols of operations in mathematical expressions; In the 17-18th centuries, a language of differential and integral calculus was created, in the 19-20th century - the language of mathematical logic. Elements of symbolic lingules of linguistics are created in the 1930-40s. Symbolic science languages \u200b\u200bare formal systems intended for the presentation of knowledge and manipulate them in the respective subject areas (there are also independent language of knowledge presentation languages), that is, they are implemented in them a limited number of languages \u200b\u200b(metalinguistic, representative), at the same time they are Perform functions that are not characteristic of the natural language (for example, to serve as a means of logical output).
The development of human-machine communication languages \u200b\u200bbegan in the 1940s together with the appearance of a computer. The first languages \u200b\u200bof this type were the languages \u200b\u200bof describing computing processes by referring machine commands and data in binary code. In the early 1950s, symbolic coding systems (assemblers) are created, in which mnemonic symbolic designations of operations (verbs) and operands (objects, additions) are used; In 1957, the Fortran programming language was developed in the USA, in 1960 a group of European scientists offered the language of Algol-60. Typically, the text in programming language consists of a program header, descriptive (declarative) and procedural parts; The declarative part describes objects (values) on which actions will be carried out, in the procedural part in the imperative or centential (narrative) form, calculations are set. Calculations in programming languages \u200b\u200bare specified in the form of operators (proposals), which include operands (variables and constants) and symbols denoting arithmetic, logical, symbolic, multiple and other operations, and computational functions; There are special grammatical structures for the task of logical conditions, cycles, composite operators (analogues complex offers), Designs for the task and use of procedures and functions, data input and output operators, operators for accessing the translator and to the operating system, i.e. to programs that interpreting the text in programming language and following its correct execution (understanding). From artificial languages, programming languages \u200b\u200bare closest to natural languages \u200b\u200baccording to the composition of the linguistic functions performed by them (there are communicative, representative, condative, fate and metalinguistic functions). For programming languages, as well as for the natural language, the asymmetry of the expression plan and the content plan (there is synonymy, multi-consciousness, homonymy). They serve not only for programming actually, but also for professional communication programmers; There are special versions of languages \u200b\u200bto publish algorithms.
By the 1980s, there were apparently over 500 different programming languages, numerous versions (dialects) of some of the most common languages \u200b\u200b(Fortran, Algola-60, PL / 1, Cobol). Programming languages \u200b\u200bhave a certain extent by the property of self-development (extensibility) due to the possibility of determining the infinite number of functions in them; There are languages \u200b\u200bwith defined types of values \u200b\u200b(Algol-68, Pascal, Hell). This property allows the user to determine its programming language by means of this.
Close to programming languages \u200b\u200band other means of man-machine communication: Languages \u200b\u200bof operating systems, with which users organize their interaction with the computing machine and its software; Languages \u200b\u200bof interaction with databases and information systems with which users are determined and introduced information into the system, asks in the system various data. Private (and originally arising) The form of requesting languages \u200b\u200b- information and search languages \u200b\u200basked by information-searching thesaurus, the classifiers of concepts and objects or simply dictionaries, automatically compiled by the system when entering information into it. The textbook text has the form of a call proposal, which lists the concepts that are signs of such data. Information and search languages \u200b\u200bcan be purely vocabulary (without grammar), but may also have grammatical means of expressing syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between concepts. They serve not only to formulate requests to the information system, but also to the indexing means (i.e., mapping the contents) of texts entered into the computer.
To interact with the computer, it is also strictly formally defined part (subset) of a natural language, the so-called limited natural, or specialized natural, language that occupies an intermediate position between natural and artificial languages. Expressions in a limited natural language are similar to expressions in a natural language, but they do not use words whose values \u200b\u200blie outside this subject area, complex for analysis, or irregular grammatical forms and structures.
Lit.: Sammet J. Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals. Engwood cliffs ,; Ceytine G. S. The features of natural languages \u200b\u200bin programming languages \u200b\u200b// Machine translation and applied linguistics. M., 1974. Vol. 17; Morozov V. P., Ezhov L. F. Algorithmic languages. M., 1975; Black A. I. Introduction to the theory of information search. M., 1975; Andryzhenko V. M. Linguistic approach to the study of programming languages \u200b\u200band interaction with computer // Problems of computing linguistics and automatic text processing in a natural language. M., 1980; Lekomtsev Yu. K. Introduction to the formal language of linguistics. M., 1983.
V. M. Andryushenko.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof the above classes are used in real world. The opposite of them is artificial languages \u200b\u200bof virtual (fictional) worlds created by the imagination of utopian philosophers (starting with "Utopia" T. Mora), science writers, authors of the projects of "Alternative History" and others. At the turn of the 20-21th century due to development New media and the emergence of the Internet class of such languages \u200b\u200bcalled virtual (fictional, fictitious, fantastic) has sharply expanded its borders.
The peculiarity of virtual languages \u200b\u200bis that their authors make up not only the language of the language, but simulate the communicative situation as a whole (fictional time, place, participants in communication, texts, dialogues, etc.). In the 20th century, the fame of Novoyases, described in the Satyrian anti-nightopia J. Orwell in 1948, and a variety of language projects J. Tolkina (the trilogy "Lord of the Rings"); Virtual languages \u200b\u200bare used not only in literary works, but also in films and serials, role-playing games, they compose and perform songs, they are dedicated to a significant number of Internet sites. Society of supporters of such languages \u200b\u200bare being created, as a result of which they are sometimes transformed into the languages \u200b\u200bof real human communication. In contrast, international artificial languages \u200b\u200blike Esperanto, which are developing in the direction approaching them to natural languages, virtual languages \u200b\u200bare followed in the opposite direction, mastering the semiotic possibilities unusual for human communication ("Alternative Semiozis" as a sign of "alternative world"). See also Tolkian languages.
Lit.: Sidorova M. Yu., Shvalova O. N. Internet Linguistics: Fictional Languages. M., 2006.
In the 19th century linguistics (less often in modern linguistics), the term "artificial languages" was also attached to subsystems (or modifications) of natural languages, which differ from other subsystems of a greater degree of conscious impact of a person on their formation and development. With such an understanding [G. Paul (Germany), I. A. Boduen de Courtae, etc.] referred to artificial languages, on the one hand, literary languages \u200b\u200b(as opposed to dialects), and on the other - professional and secret languages \u200b\u200b(as opposed to a nationwide language). Literary languages \u200b\u200bare distinguished by the greatest artificiality, which are more or less arbitrary synthesis of a number of existing dialects (for example, Lansmol; see Norwegian language). In these cases, the antithesis "artificial - natural" is equal to opposition to the conscious and spontaneous.
In some linguistic concepts, artificially recognized all human languages \u200b\u200bon the grounds that they act as a product of human creativity ("the creation of humanity", N. Ya. Marr) and in this sense, the natural communication of animals is opposed. Antithesis "Artificial - Natural" thereby came closer to the antithesis "Social - Biological".
The study of artificial languages \u200b\u200bboth in his own sense and in an appendix to artificially ordered subsystems of natural languages \u200b\u200ballows you to realize the general principles of the device and the functioning of the language in general, expands theoretical ideas about such properties of the language, as a systematic, communicative suitability, stability and variability, as well as The conscious impact of a person in the language, degree and types of its formalization and optimization.
Lit.: Marr N. Ya. General course of teaching on language // Marr J. I. Selected work. L., 1936. T. 2; Paul G. Principles of language history. M., 1960; Boduen de Courtee I. A. Selected Works on General Linguistics. M., 1963.T. 1-2.
Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
Federal state budgetary educational institution Higher professional education
"Chelyabinsky state University»
(FGBOU VPO "Chelu")
Kostanay branch
Department of Philology
COURSE WORK
Topic: International Artificial Languages
Moldasheva Aizhan Bolatovna
Specialty / Direction Linguistics
Manager
Kostanay 2013.
Introduction Tongue
1 Essence of language
2 Language as a social phenomenon. International artificial languages
Conclusion
Introduction
At the moment there are thousands of different languages. Language - as the most important means of human communication is closely related to society, its culture and people who live and work in society, using the language is widely and diverse. Without consideration of the appointment of the language, its connections with society, consciousness and mental activity of a person, without consideration of the rules of functioning and laws historical Development Languages \u200b\u200bare impossible deeply and correctly understand the language system, its units of categories. The need for language, intermediary between nations, has always existed, but among thousands of languages \u200b\u200bcovering our land, it is difficult to find only one that everyone could understand. For every natural language, the function of international communication is secondary, as such a language is primarily used as the national language of this or that nation. Therefore, projects for creating an artificial language, as a rule, were based on the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a universal language, which would be common to all mankind or several ethnic groups.
The relevance of this work is due to the situation in which our society is now. First of all, this is due to the development of global communications, primarily international negotiations. At the moment there are more than a thousand artificial languages \u200b\u200bin the world, and interest in Esperanto and other planned languages \u200b\u200bis increasingly manifested. Therefore, it is possible to increase interest in interlingity and planned languages \u200b\u200bas a means of communication, and as a result - further development This industry linguistics. Today, the world has about five hundred artificial languages. However, of the total number of planned languages, ever offered as international, few were suitable for real communication and began to be applied by a large or smaller number of people.
The purpose of this work is to study the role of artificial languages \u200b\u200bin the system of modern culture.
To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
give a brief historical certificate about the formation and development of artificial languages;
consider varieties of international artificial languages;
disclose the concept of "planned languages".
Object of study: Baisik-Inglish, Volapauk, Ido, Interlingue, Latino-Sine-Flexion, Limpan, Slubb, on "Vi, Novial, Occidental, Simony, Solresol, Esperanto, Ifkuil, Klingon, Elven languages.
Subject of research: languages \u200b\u200bof artificial origin.
The theoretical significance of the study is to study the artificial language as a whole.
The practical significance of the study is how artificial languages \u200b\u200bhelp international communications and society as a whole.
The theoretical and methodological basis for the study was fundamental in the field of interlinguistics of work: Galen, Y.M. Shleyer L.L. Replacing, E. Veferling, E. Lipman, K. Schester, E. De Valem A. Gouda,
This paper discusses the history of the emergence, causes, advantages of artificial languages.
The work has a traditional structure and includes the introduction, the main part consisting of two chapters, conclusion and list of used literature.
I. Language as a means of communication
1 Essence of language
The history of science of language testifies that the question of the essence of the language is one of the most difficult in linguistics. It is not by chance that it has several mutually exclusive solutions:
language is a biological phenomenon, natural, independent of man ( Languages, these natural organisms formed in sound matter ...., show their properties of the natural organism not only in the fact that they are classified for childbirth, species, subspecies, etc., but also that their growth occurs according to certain laws, - wrote A. Schleiher).
language is a psychic phenomenon that arises due to the action of an individual spirit - human or divine ( Language, wrote V.Gamboldt, represents the continuous activity of the Spirit, aspiring to turn the sound into the expression of thought).
language is a phenomenon of psychosocial, having, according to I.A. Bodona de Kurgee collectively - individual or collectively - psychological existence in which the individual is both general, universal;
language is a social, emerging and developing only in the team ( Language is a social element of speech activity, "said the village of Sosurur, - external in relation to the individual, which in itself can neither create a language or change it).
It is easy to see that in these different definitions the language is understood as the phenomenon of biological (or natural), as the phenomenon of mental (individual), as the social phenomenon (public). If we recognize the language with a biological phenomenon, then it should be considered in one row with such human abilities, as it is, to drink, sleep, walk, etc., and assume that the language is inherited by man, since it is laid in its very nature. However, this contradicts the facts as the language is not inherited. He is absorbed by the child under the influence of speaking. It is unlikely that it is legitimate to consider the language and phenomenon of mental, arising from the action of an individual spirit - human or divine. In this case, humanity would have a huge variety of individual languages, which would lead to the situation of the Babylonian mixing of languages, misunderstanding each other, even members of one team. There is no doubt that the language is social: it arises and develops only in the team due to the need to communicate people with each other.
Miscellaneous understanding of the essence of the language gave rise to different approaches to its definition, Wed: Language is thinking, expressed by sounds (A. Schleiher); Language is a system of signs in which the only significant meaning of the meaning and acoustic image (F. de Sosurur) is the only essential image (F. de Sosurur); The language is a practical, existing for other people, and only thereby existing for me, the actual consciousness (K. Marx, F. Enth); Language is the most important means of human communication (V.I. Lenin); Language There is a spontaneously emerging in human society and a developing system of competence sounds of signs, which serves for communication purposes and able to express the entire set of knowledge and representations of a person about the world (ARTYUNOVA N.D.).
In each of these definitions (and the number of them can be increased to infinity) accentuates different points: the ratio of the language to thinking, the structural organization of the language, the most important functions, etc., which once again indicates that the language is the most complex sign system, Working in unity and interaction with the consciousness and thinking of man.
Language is a hard phenomenon. E. BenVenist wrote several decades ago: "The properties of the tongue are so peculiar that it is essentially to talk about the presence of a language not one, but several structures, each of which could serve as a basis for the emergence of holistic linguistics." Language is a multidimensional phenomenon that emerged in human society: it and the system and the antisystem, and the activity and product of this activity, and spirit and matter, and the spontaneous object and an ordered self-regulating phenomenon, it is arbitrarily and produced, etc. Describing the language in all its complexity from the opposite sides, we reveal the most entity.
To reflect the most complex essence of the language, Yu. S. Stepanov presented it in the form of several images, because none of these images are able to fully reflect all sides of the language: 1) Language as an individual language; 2) language as a member of the family of languages; 3) language as a structure; 4) language as a system; 5) language as type and character; 6) language as a computer; 7) language as the space of thought and as the "House of Spirit" (M. Khaidheger), i.e. Language as a result of a complex cognitive activity of a person. Accordingly, from the position of the seventh image, the language, firstly, is the result of the people's activities; Secondly, the result of the activities of the creative personality and the result of the activities of language normalizers (states, institutions that produce norms and rules).
To these images at the very end of the XX century. Another one was added: the language as a product of culture, as its important component and the condition of existence, as a factor in the formation of cultural codes.
From the standpoint of the anthropocentric paradigm, a person will know the world through the awareness of itself, its theoretical and subject activity in it. No abstract theory can answer the question why you can think about feeling like fire and talk about the flame of love, about the heat of hearts, about the warmth of friendship, etc. The awareness of the measure of all things gives a person the right to create the anthropocentric order of things in his consciousness, to explore which is not on the domesticity, but at the scientific level. This order, existing in the head, in the consciousness of a person, determines its spiritual essence, the motives of its actions, hierarchy of values. All this can be understood, exploring the speech of a person, the turns and expressions that he most often uses to which he has manifested highest level Empathy.
In the process of forming a new scientific paradigm, the thesis was proclaimed: "The world is a totality of facts, not things" (L. Wittgenstein). The language was gradually reoriented on a fact, an event, and the personality of the native speaker was the focus of attention (language identity, by Yu. N. Karaulu). The new paradigm involves new installations and objectives of the study language, new key concepts and techniques. In the anthropocentric paradigm, methods of designing the subject of a linguistic study changed, the approach to the choice was transformed general principles and research methods, several competing linguistic description metalanas appeared (R. M. Frumkina).
2 Language as a social phenomenon
As a phenomenon, social language is the property of all people belonging to one team. Language is created and developed by society. On this connection, Language and Society drew the attention of F. Engels, who wrote in Dialectic nature : Formed people came to the fact that they had the need to say something to each other.
The question of communication language and society has different decisions. According to one point of view, the link language and society is absent, because, the language is developing and operating according to its laws (Polish scientist E. Kurilovich), according to another - this connection is one-sided, because the development and existence of the language is fully determined The level of development of society (French scientist J. Maouruzo) or vice versa - language itself determines the specifics of the society of society (American scientists E. Sepir, B. Wharf). However, the point of view was the greatest distribution, according to which the link language and society is bilateral.
The language, spontaneously arising in human society and a developing system of discrete (self-separated) sound signs, intended for communication purposes and able to express the entire set of knowledge and representations of a person about the world. The sign of the elements of the emergence and development, as well as the boundlessness of the field of application and the possibilities of expression distinguishes the language from the so-called artificial, or formalized, languages \u200b\u200bthat are used in other industries (artificial languages, information languages, programming language, information and search language), and from various signaling systems created on the basis of language (Alphabet Morse, traffic signs, etc.). As a characteristic of the ability to express the abstract forms of thinking and associated with this ability, the language of discreteness (internal reporting message) is qualitatively different from the so-called animal language, which is a set of signals transmitting reactions in situations and regulating animal behavior under certain conditions. Animal message can only be based on direct experience. It is indecomposable to disturbing elements and does not require a speech response: a certain image of action is reaction to it. Language possession is one of the most important traits allocating a person from the world of animals. Language - there is at the same time the condition of development and the product of human culture.
Being primarily a means of expressing and reporting thoughts, the language is most directly associated with thinking. It is not by chance that the units of the language served as the basis for establishing forms of thinking. The link language and thinking is interpreted in modern science in different ways. The point of view was the greatest spread according to which human thinking can only be committed on the basis of the language, since the thinking itself differs from all other types of mental activities. At the same time, the results of scientific observations of doctors, psychologists, physiologists, logic and lingules show that thinking occurs not only in the abstract logical sphere, but also in the course of sensual knowledge, within which it is carried out by material images, memory and imagination; Thinking composers, mathematicians, chess players, etc. is not always expressed in verbal form. The initial stages of the process of generating speech are closely related to various non-verbal forms of thinking. Apparently, human thinking represents a combination of various types of mental activity, constantly replacing and complementing each other, and verbal thinking? Only the main of these types. Since the language is closely connected with the entire mental sphere of man and the expression of thoughts does not constitute its only purpose, it is not identical to thinking.
Communication with abstract thinking provides a language possibility, carrying out a communicative function, transmit any information, including general judgments, reports on subjects that are not present in the speech situation, about the past and the future, about fantastic or simply not appropriate reality situations. On the other hand, due to the presence in the language of the iconic units expressing abstract concepts, the language in a certain way organizes human knowledge about the objective world, dismembers them and fixes in human consciousness. Is this the second basic function of the language? The function of reflection of reality, i.e., the formation of categories of thought and, wider, consciousness. The interactiveness of the communicative function of the language and its relationship with human consciousness was indicated by K. Marx: "The language is also ancient, as well as consciousness; The language is a practical, existing for other people and only thereby existing as well as for me, actual consciousness and, like consciousness, the language arises only from the need, from the urgent need to communicate with other people. " Along with two main languages, a number of other functions are performed: nominative, aesthetic, magical, emotional expressive, appeal.
Two forms of the existence of the language corresponding to the opposition of the concepts of "language" and speech. Language - as the system has the nature of a peculiar code; Speech is the implementation of this code. The language has special means and mechanisms for the formation of specific speech messages. The action of these mechanisms, for example, assigning a name to a specific subject, allows an "old" language to make a new reality, creating speech statements. As one of the forms of social activity, it has signs of consciousness and focus. Without correlating with a certain communicative purpose, the proposal cannot become the fact of speech. Communicative goals having universal character are heterogeneous. Some actions, actions are unthinkable without speech acts. Spen it is necessary in many other types of social activity. All forms of literary activities, propaganda, controversy, dispute, contract, etc., arose on the basis of the language, and are carried out in the form of speech. With the participation of speech there is a labor organization, as well as many other types of public life of people.
The language has only peculiar features that make it a unique phenomenon. In the other form of the existence of the language, national-specific and universal features are allocated. The universal number includes all those properties of the language that correspond to the universal form of thinking and activities. Universal and those properties of the language that allow it to carry out its purpose, as well as those of its characteristics that arise as a consequence of uniform laws for all languages. The national specifications include specific features of membership, expressions and internal organizations of values.
The coincidence of structural features is combined into types of languages. The proximity of the material inventory of units, due to the generality of origin, combines languages \u200b\u200bin the group, or family. The structural and material community, which established as a result of language contacts, combines languages \u200b\u200binto language unions.
The sign nature of the language assumes the presence of a sensually perceived form - expression, and some sensually not perceived meaning - content materialized with this form. Sound matter is the main and primary form of expression of meaning. Existing species Writing is only the transposition of sound form in a visually perceived substance. They are a secondary form of an expression plan. Since sound speech is deployed in time, it has a sign of linearity, which is usually preserved in writing forms.
The relationship between the sides of the language sign - meaning and meaning - arbitrary: then or another sound does not assume with the need for a strictly defined value, and vice versa. The arbitrariness of the sign explains the expression in different languages Different sound complexes of the same or similar value. Since the words of the native language are rejected by the concepts, delimit them and fix in memory, the connection between the sides of the sign for the native speakers is not only durable, but also natural, organic.
The ability to correlate sound and value is a creature of the language. The materialistic approach to the language, emphasizes the continuity of the connection and sound and at the same time its dialectically controversial nature. Naturally developing languages \u200b\u200ballow varying sounds that are not associated with a change in value, as well as a change in the value that does not enter the need to vary the sound. As a result, one value may correspond to different sequences of sounds, and one sound. Different values. Asymmetry in the ratio of sound and semantic aspects of language signs does not interfere with communication, since the arsenal of means performing a senseless role consists not only of constant, forming a system of language units, but also from a variety of variables that a person uses in the process of expression and understanding some content Units, their syntactic position, intonation, speech situation, context, paralynguistic means - Mimic, gestures.
In most languages, the following series of sound units are distinguished: a phonem in which acoustic features are merged due to the unity of pronunciation; syllable combining sounds with an exhalation jerk; phonetic word, grouping syllables under one stress; Speech tact, combining phonetic words using restrictive pauses, and finally, a phonetic phrase, summing up the clock by the unity of intonation.
Along with the system of sound units, there is a system of iconic units, formed in most languages \u200b\u200bof morph, word, phrase and suggestion. Due to the presence of a language of significant units, various combinations of which create statements, as well as as a result of the theoretical unlimited volume of supply from a finite set of source elements, an infinite number of messages can be created.
Speech membership on sound elements does not coincide with its membership on bilateral units. The difference in segmentation is determined not only by the fact that the syllable does not coincide into parts of languages \u200b\u200bwith the morphoble, but also of different depth of speech division on sound and significant units: the limit of the segmentation of the sound stream is a sound that does not possess own meaning. This ensures the possibility of creating a huge number of significant units differing in the sound composition from a very limited inventory of sounds.
An iconic, or semiotic, the nature of the language, as the system assumes that it is organized by the principle of distinguishability of its forming units. With the minimality of the differences in the sound or the value of a unit of the language, form opposition on a specific feature. The opposite units are among themselves in paradigmatic relations based on their ability to distinguish between the same speech position. Between the units of the language also arise relationships on adjacencies, which are determined by their ability to combine.
Information transfer to the language can be viewed not only from the point of view of organizing its internal structure, but also at an angle of view of the organization of its external system, since the life of the language is manifested in the socio-typed forms of its use. The social entity of the language ensures its adequacy to the public device.
The influence of the language on the development of social relations is primarily evidenced by the fact that language is one of the consolidating factors of the nation. It is, on the one hand, the prerequisite and condition of its occurrence, and on the other, the result of this process. In addition, this is evidenced by the role of the language in the educational and educational activities of the Company as, the language is a tool and means of transmission from generation to generation of knowledge, cultural and historical and other traditions.
The link language with society is objective, independent of the will of individual individuals. However, the purposeful influence of society (and in particular, the state) in the language, when a certain language policy is being carried out, that is, a conscious, targeted state impact in the language, designed to promote its effective functioning in various fields (most often it is expressed in the creation of alphabets or writing For the safe peoples, in the development or improvement of the rules of spelling, special terminology, codification, etc. Activities, although sometimes the language policy of the state may slow down the development of the national literary language as it was.
Any thought in the form of concepts, judgments or conclusions with the need is checked into the material and linguistic shell and does not exist outside the language. Identify and explore logical structures can only be analyzing the language expressions.
The language is a sign system that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of cognitive reality and communication between people.
Language is a necessary condition for the existence of abstract thinking. Therefore, thinking is a distinctive feature of a person.
According to its origin, languages \u200b\u200bare natural and artificial.
Natural languages \u200b\u200bare the sound (speech) historically in society, and then graphic (letter) information iconic systems. They arose to consolidate and transmit the accumulated information in the process of communicating between people. Natural languages \u200b\u200bare speakers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who own them.
Casual reasoning is usually conducted in a natural language. But such a language developed in the interests of ease of communication, exchange of thoughts to the detriment of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages \u200b\u200bhave rich expressive capabilities: with their help you can express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, feelings.
Natural language performs two main functions - representative and communicative. The representative function lies in the fact that the language is a means of symbolic expression or presentation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), affordable by thinking by specific intellectual entities. Communicative function is expressed in the fact that the language is a means of transmitting or message this abstract content from one intelligent subject to another. In itself, letters, words, suggestions (or other characters, for example, hieroglyphs) and their aggregate form a material basis, in which the material superstructure is implemented - a set of rules for building letters, words, proposals and other language symbols, and only with the appropriate superstructure that Or another material basis forms a specific natural language.
II. International artificial languages
1 The main stages of the development of artificial languages
Today, the world has a more or less successfully about five hundred artificial languages. At the same time, we do not take into account the extreme and degenerate cases - such as chemical notation, notation, or flag alphabet. We are talking only about developed languages \u200b\u200bsuitable for the transfer of complex concepts. Projects of creating an artificial language, as a rule, were based on the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a universal language, which would be common to all mankind or several ethnic groups. Obviously, any project to create a pan-human language is politically.
The first attempt to create an artificial language known to us was undertaken in the II century AD. Greek doctor Galen. In total, about a thousand projects of an international artificial language were created for the history of mankind. However, very few of them got at least some practical application. The first artificial language that really became a means of communication between people, became created in 1879 in Germany Y.M. Shleyer, Vapauk. In view of the emergency complexity and details of its grammar, the widespread widespread in the world did not receive and approximately by the middle of the 20th century, it was completely out of use. Much more happy fate was waiting invented in 1887 L.L. Replacing the language of Esperanto. Creating your tongue, L.L. The replacement sought to make it as simple as possible and easy to explore. It succeeded. Esperanto spelling is based on the principle of "one sound is one letter". Personal word is limited to four, and verbal - seven forms. The declination of the names and the hinge of the verbs is unified, unlike natural national languages, where, as a rule, we meet with several types of declining and hiding. For mastering the Esperanto language, no more than a few months is usually required. On Esperanto there is a rich original and translation fiction, numerous newspapers and magazines (about 40 periodicals) are published, broadcasting is being conducted in some countries. Esperanto, along with French, is the official language of the International Postal Association. An artificial language who received some practical use also includes Interlingua (1903), Ozcidental (1922), IDO (1907), Noviol (1928), Omo (1926) and some others. However, they did not receive widespread. Of all the existing artificial languages, only Esperanto has a real chance to become a major means of international communication. All artificial languages \u200b\u200bare divided into a posteriori and a priori. A posteriores are called such artificial languages, which is compiled "according to the sample and of the material of natural languages." Examples of posteriori languages \u200b\u200bcan serve as Esperanto, Latino-Sine-Flexion, Novil, Idiom-Nettral. A priori names are called such artificial languages, vocabulary and grammar, which are not related to vocabulary and grammar of natural languages, but are built on the basis of the principles developed by the Creator. Examples of posteriori languages \u200b\u200bcan serve as solresol and ro. .
The perfect description of the artificial language as a political project gives Orwell in the famous novel "1984". According to one version, the idea of \u200b\u200ba powerful Novoya, which serves as the main basis of a totalitarian society, was insperanto to the gunner. Novoyaz cannot be called a full-fledged artificial language, but the methodology for its creation is described by Orwell so fully that each wishes can construct a full-featured Novoyaz for its own needs.
Novoyaz is an excellent example of a fictional language, developed so much to step over the binding of the book. Fortunately, not all literary languages \u200b\u200bare designed to build totalitarianism, thoroughly depleted from tinparts and zloex. Among our contemporaries there are several thousand people who are quite clearly explained in the language of the khana elves or at the secret nursery of Khuzdul's gnomes. (We note, however, that the fans of self-sufficient Novoya are still more - turn on the TV and see for yourself). Saga Tolkien about the Mediterranean, which received new popularity after the release of the cinematic trilogy "Lord of the Rings" is built on a professorically designed languages. The whole story about the adventures of the Hobbits we owe Tolkien project to develop a family of special languages. The project was so successful that the resulting languages \u200b\u200bfound their lives. Not less popular Fantastic language Klingon is the oral and written language of the Empire of the Klingon described in the Startrek series. Klingon was developed by American linguist Markov Ordand on the order of Paramount Studios. For residents of land wishing to explore Klingon, a special Institute of the Klingon Language is founded, books and magazines are published. Klingon is a developed and live language. Not so long ago, the main search system of the Earth Google opened the Klingon version of its main page. This is an unconditional indicator of the significance of the Klingon language for civilization. To a lesser extent to the general public, an artificial language described by Jorge Louis Borges in Novella "Tlen, Ukbar, Orbistertius", in this small work there are practically no design of the new language, but the mechanisms of influence of an artificial language on the work of the social machine are manifested. (In addition to the mentioned Novella "Tlen, Obbar, OrbisterTius", the problem of building an artificial language and universal typology of concepts is devoted to the less famous story of Borges "Analytical language John Wilx"). The most successful project of building an artificial language is the creation of Hebrew - a living language for a dynamic, modern nation based on written Hebrew. Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language from about the II century to our era. The next 18 centuries of Hebrew served as a written language of theological and scientific texts. A common conversational language for the Jews became Yiddish and, to a lesser extent, Ladino. In the XIX century, the political project of Jewish statehood demanded the creation of a generally accepted national language. Hebrew was reconstructed as a conversational language. First of all, it was necessary to develop new phonetics and introduce vocabulary to designate the concepts that were absent in Biblical Hebrew. In addition, the new language was imposed by the requirement of relative ease of study for the Jews.
In popular typologies of artificial languages \u200b\u200boften have to deal with the section "Machine Languages". I want to pay attention that programming languages \u200b\u200b- C, C ++, Basic, Prolog, HTML, Pythonetc are not machine in the everyday sense of the word. Computer code on C ++ is also alien as Pushkin poems or slang American blacks. This machine language is a binary code. It cannot be said that binary codes are fundamentally not available to people, in the end, it is people who constructed them on the basis of a mathematical apparatus. Artificial machine language is designed rather for people than for cars - it is only a way to formalize instructions for a computer so that special programs can translate them into codes.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare special languages \u200b\u200bthat, unlike natural, are designed targeted. They can be designed with the help of a natural language or previously constructed artificial language. The language that acts as a means of building or studying another language is called the metalanas, the basis of the language-object. The metalanak, as a rule, has a richer compared to the language-object expressive opportunities.
Distinguish the following types of artificial languages:
Programming languages \u200b\u200band computer languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bfor automatic information processing using computers.
Information languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bused in various information processing systems.
Formalized science languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bintended for the symbolic record of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages \u200b\u200bof non-existent peoples created in fictional or entertainment purposes, for example: Elf Children, invented, J. Tolkien Klingon, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantastic series "Startrek", language to "W, created for the film" Avatar ".
International auxiliary languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bcreated from elements of natural languages \u200b\u200band offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
From artificial languages, the most famous are: Basic-Inglish, Vapauk, Ido, Interlingua, Latino-Sine-Flexion, Loban, Ltban, on "Vi, Novial, Ocidental, Symali, Solresol, Esperanto, IFKUIL, Klingon, Elven languages.
Any artificial language has three levels of organization:
· syntax - the level of the structure of the language, where relations are formed and examined between signs, methods of education and the transformation of iconic systems;
· sinematics, where the relationship of the sign is being investigated to its meaning (the value under which is understood by either the thought expressed by the sign, or the object that is denoted);
· pragmatatic, where the methods of use of signs in this community using artificial language are investigated.
However, Paphos "Destruction of the Babylonian Tower" is so strong that the political meaning and methods of artificial language projects are very difficult to identify from later descriptions. The most successful and most faithful design of the language of international communication - Esperanto. It should be noted that most of Descriptions of Esperanto created by fans of a new language. In propaganda texts there is no hint of the device and objectives of the project "Esperanto", however, could the artificial language become almost native to several million people, do not be included in a single program? I called Esperanto the most faithful project of a universal language. This is not an accident - despite the fact that Esperanto own several million people, this language is not common to them. Russian-speaking Esperantist practically does not understand English-speaking or Hispanic. Artificially alive language develops each "diaspora" and spreads to dialects. The development of the project "Esperanto" is explained not to the functional role of the new language for international communication.
2 Classification of international artificial languages
sannaya International Artificial Language
International artificial languages \u200b\u200bare an object of study of two interdisciplinary theories: theories of international languages \u200b\u200b(international language) and the theory of artificial languages \u200b\u200b(artificial in language). The first theory is known as interledgable; The second theory is still in the process of becoming and did not addate from neighboring disciplines.
The first aspect of the study of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bis mainly sociolinguistic: international artificial languages \u200b\u200bare investigated from the point of view of their social functioning and are considered in parallel with other phenomena united by the general problem "Language and Society": bilingualism, interference of languages, the problem of the spontaneous and conscious in the language , questions of language policy, etc. The second aspect is mainly lingvosomyotic: the consideration here is the ontological characteristics of international artificial languages, their similarities and differences from other iconic systems, the typological foundations of the classification of international artificial languages.
Typological classification International artificial languages \u200b\u200bis based on a hierarchically organized system of features, the number of which (and, consequently, the classification depth) can be in principle infinite - until the classes are obtained by international artificial languages \u200b\u200bconsisting of one language. We are limited here to considering typological signs relating only to the upper tiers of the hierarchy. The ratio of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bwith natural languages \u200b\u200bin terms of expression can be recognized as an initial classification feature.
By tradition, ascending to the work of the Moka, but even more to the famous works of L. Kutur and L. Lo, all international artificial languages \u200b\u200bare distributed into two classes depending on the presence / lack of their material compliance with natural languages. A posterior language is an artificial language whose elements are borrowed from existing languages, as opposed to a priori, artificial language, whose elements are not borrowed from existing languages, and created arbitrarily or on the basis of any logical (philosophical) concept.
A posteriori languages \u200b\u200bcan be divided into three classes:
Simplified Ethnic Language: Basic-Inglish, Latino-Sine-Flexion, etc.;
Natural language, i.e., as close as possible to ethnic languages \u200b\u200b(more often than the Romance group): Occidal, Interlingua;
Autonomous (schematic) - in which grammar with a priori elements uses vocabulary borrowed from ethnic languages: Esperanto and most Esperantoids, late Volapük.
Examples of priori languages \u200b\u200bmay be: Solresol, Iphkill, Ilax, Logan, Snogb, Ro, Bogomol, Chengley, Astaron, Dyryar. The presence of a priori elements on the synthagamic level (the combination of morpheme) determines the identity of the apostery language to the autonomous type; According to their presence on the paradigmatic level (the composition of the morpheme), autonomous languages \u200b\u200bcan be divided into hyperShematic (Esperanto) and hyposhematic (idiom-non-ultral).
Contrasting data of two classes International artificial languages \u200b\u200bis not absolute, but relative in nature: some a priori elements can be used in posteriori languages, and in priori languages \u200b\u200bthere are sometimes posteriorimarisms.
Due to the fact that the ratio of a priori and posterior artificial traits in some international artificial languages, the opposition of these classes takes the form of continuum, whose middle link will be languages \u200b\u200bwith an approximate equal ratio of a priori and posteriori damns. Projects of this group L. Kutuura and L. Lo assigned the name of mixed languages \u200b\u200b(Mixes languages), ranked with them Vapauk and unintended projects with it. However, the unequivocal definition of the Mikst languages \u200b\u200bhas not yet been given, which led to a significant arbitrariness in the use of this term. For example, in one of the classifications mentioned by M. Monro-Dumane, Vapauk is attributed to a posstoretory group, while some projects close to him turned out to be included in the micct group. Our position on this issue will be formulated below.
Some corrections to the L. Kutur and L. Lo scheme should be made due to the fact that during the time that the publication of their work was created and received a certain distribution of projects that expanded the limits of the specified continuum towards greater recreational awards (Latin-blue Flexion, 1903; Occidental, 1922; Interlingua Ial, 1951, etc.). In contrast languages \u200b\u200bsuch as Esperanto, these international artificial languages \u200b\u200benjoy solely natural forms, refusing to apply the use of a priori, and also differ in other signs that will be discussed below. Thus, the recreation projects began to differ in the degree of aitarianity: international artificial languages, full, absolute reciprocal languages, are usually called naturalistic; International artificial languages \u200b\u200bthat detect predominant (dominant) aitreality have been called autonomous or schematic.
The need for additional changes in the classification of L. Kutur and L. Lo is called by the fact that after the Sunset of the Volpius, since the last decade of the XIX century, projects were emerging, which are either a correction of previously created international artificial languages \u200b\u200b(reform projects: First of the Volapucudicides, and Then the Esperanto, of which the most famous IDO, who gave its series of successors - Idoid projects), or an attempt to synthesize several projects (compromise projects, for example, projects E. Veferling, E. Lipman, K. Schesta, etc.). Thus, in addition to the "primary" international artificial languages, directly erected (or non-yield) to natural languages, "secondary" international artificial languages \u200b\u200barose, the source of which are not natural languages, and previously created international artificial languages. A series of projects, built to the same international artificial languages, form "families" of languages \u200b\u200b(sometimes intersecting among themselves). These genealogical associations could be the subject of special, interlinguistic, comparativistic.
The following classification feature refers to the structure of the sign into international artificial languages. International artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be divided into several groups, depending on how the ratio of inventory Morpham and inventory of words is built in them.
International artificial languages \u200b\u200bdiffer primarily by the set of iconic levels. International artificial languages \u200b\u200bof the IDO type have the same levels as the natural languages \u200b\u200bof the synthetic type: the levels of the roots, complex bases (root + root), derivative bases (root + derivative) and word forms (base + grammatical indicator). The grammatical indicators in the IDO have a syncretic character, being simultaneously a sign of this part of speech and an expressive of a certain categorical meaning: Rich-o "Bogach" (- - Sign of the noun. Numbers), Rich-I "Richiti" (-i - sign of noun MN . Numbers), Rich-a "rich" or "rich" (-A - a sign of adjective, not differentiated by numbers).
In most cases, the principles of the building of the morpheme in posteriori projects are subject to other laws than in a priori international artificial languages.
A posteriori languages \u200b\u200bare divided into a significant attitude to the subgroups depending on these lexical homogeneity or heterogeneity.
Lexically homogeneous languages \u200b\u200bhave in the event that the choice of morpheme (words) was produced from a single source.
International artificial languages \u200b\u200bwith heterogeneous vocabulary are the result of the connection of the Vocabul, which are not found together within the limits of natural lexical systems. Examples include the Anglo-Frank project, 1889, built on the Corelovy of English and French, and the project of Anti-Babilon, 1950, where the vocabulary of Europa, Asia and Africa is used.
The planned language is an international artificial socialized language, that is, the language created for international communication and applied in practice.
Major International Artificial Languages \u200b\u200bHaving or Having had communicative implementations.
Vapauk - created in 1879 by I. M. Shleyer, Litzelstetten near the city of Constanta (Germany); The active use of the language continued to about 1893, when, stating the failure of Volpius, his academy processes the development of a new artificial language (Idyom-Neutral); The last Volpayuk magazine stops in 1910
Esperanto - was created in 1887 L. L. Rezoyofom, Warsaw (Poland, which was then part of the Russian Empire); The most common planned language actively used to date. "
Idiom-neutral - created in 1893-1898. The International Academy of Volpayuk under the leadership of V. K-Rosenberger, St. Petersburg (Russia); He was the official language of the Named Academy to 1908, had small groups of supporters in Russia, Germany, Belgium and the United States. In 1907, when considering artificial languages \u200b\u200bby the Committee of the Delegation for the adoption of an international auxiliary language [see 15, p. 71 and next] Idiom Neutral acted as the main opponent Esperanto; After the Committee spoke in favor of (reformed) Esperanto, Propaganda Idiom-Nettral is terminated; The last magazine (Progres, St. Petersburg) was published until 1908.
Latin-Sine-Flexion was created in 1903, J. Peano, Turin (Italy); In 1909, he was adopted as the official language of the former Volapucheuk Academy (which became known as the Academy of International Language - ACADEMIA PRO INTERLINGUA); Used in a number of scientific publications before the beginning of World War II (1939), after which it gradually comes off.
IDO (reformed Esperanto) - created in 1907-1908. The Committee and the Permanent Commission of the Delegation for the adoption of an international auxiliary language under the leadership of L. Kutur and with the participation of L. De Bofron, O. Esperesen and V. Ostvald; Massed strong competition of Esperanto until his crisis in 1926-1928. Currently has supporters and periodicals in Switzerland, England, Sweden and a number of other countries.
Occidental - created in 1921-1922. E. De Valem, Revel (now Tallinn, Estonia); Starting from 1924 he began to adopt supporters in the IDO language; had a group supported by his groups in Austria, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, France and some other countries; After publication of the Interlingu language in 1951, most of the occidatenists moved to the position of this language.
Noviol - created in 1928 O. Esperesen, Copenhagen (Denmark). Had a limited circle of supporters mainly from among the former iders; Groups of Novialists broke up with the beginning of World War II.
Interlingua - established in 1951 by the Association of the International Auxiliary Language under the leadership of A. Gouda, New York (USA). The initial composition of supporters was formed by the transition to this language of former ocidental adherents and IDOs. Currently has periodicals in Denmark, Switzerland, France, Great Britain and some other countries.
The above list did not include some of the planned languages \u200b\u200bthat had a slight number of supporters (non-ultral reforms, 1912; reformed Volupyuk, 1931; Neo, 1937) or standing away from the main line of development of interlinguistics (Bacheik-Inglish, 1929-1932).
Within the framework of the global linguistic situation, planned languages \u200b\u200balong with other artificials are included in the overall system for the interaction of natural and artificial languages. Researchers of the language situation modern Mira celebrate her characteristic features The parallel existence of natural and artificial languages \u200b\u200bcaused by the scientific and technical revolution. The electronic computing machines (computers) that appeared in the 50s) demanded the development of special artificial languages \u200b\u200bon which the commands could be formulated to manage computer activities (programming languages) or record information that was introduced into the computer and to be treated (information languages).
As it expands the use of computer, an increasing number of programming languages \u200b\u200band information languages \u200b\u200bhas been developed, and constantly growing personnel were involved in working with them (programmers, specialists in the field of computer science), not to mention numerous consumers of information that has passed machine treatment on the computer. As a result, rapidly developing artificial languages \u200b\u200bformed "their own peculiar world that exists in parallel with the world of natural languages", and began to develop a "new language situation, the main difference of which can be considered to establish in the society of natural-artificial bilinguals."
The said clarifies the historical value of the appearance at the end of the XIX century. The planned languages \u200b\u200bof both the first messengers of the modern language situation, which emerges from the interaction of two linguistic worlds, the world of natural languages, accompanying humanity at all stages of its existence, and the world of artificial languages, formed over the past century.
Conclusion
Having studied the theme "International Artificial Languages" we came to the conclusion that artificial language is also important as natural. Since various international negotiations are held in a certain language relating to certain nations.
Multilinguality has always caused a problem in international cooperation, in the progress of world culture. This is especially acute in our time when the number of international organizations is rapidly increasing, international business contacts are expanding.
Language is defined as a means of human communication. This one of the possible definitions of the language is the main thing, for it characterizes the language not from the point of view of its organization, structure, etc., but from the point of view of what it is intended for. But why is the main thing? Are there other means of communication? Yes, exist. The engineer can communicate with a colleague, not knowing his native language, but they will understand each other if the drawings use. The drawing is usually defined as an international technology language. The musician conveys his feelings with the help of a melody, and his listeners understand him. The artist is thinking by images and expresses it with the help of lines and colors. And all these languages, so often they say the "poster language", "language of music". But this is another meaning of the word language.
Despite the fact that scientists are still quite indifferent to the question of an auxiliary international language, and most of all supporters of an artificial language, and mostly artificial languages \u200b\u200bare recruited in a peace scientist between mathematicians and natural studies, the topic of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bremains relevant.
Based on the purposes and objectives of this paper, it can be concluded that international artificial languages \u200b\u200bhave their own role in society and in the modern culture system, which are created on the basis of natural languages \u200b\u200bfor accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computing equipment, cybernetics, connection, stenograph, as well as in legal and logical science for theoretical and practical analysis of thought structures.
We believe that the development of an international artificial language will give the advantage of cooperation between political negotiations, for negotiations of international transactions. But the main advantage The desire of a person in modern society to study not only natural languages, but also languages \u200b\u200bof artificial origin.
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Natural languages, everyone knows. And if he does not know, at least guessed - after all, they say all people of our planet. But in order not to be confused, it is possible to give them such a definition - this is the fruit of communication of people who have arisen and improved for centuries, who has experienced the influence of cultures, traditions and naturally almost all languages: this is Russian, and English, and Chinese, and German , and Indian, and many others. They can be simple, and complex; and distributed, and rare; and international and used only in their own homeland.
And what are artificial languages? Why are they called that? How did they arise? What are they needed for?
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bwere created by a person and were not influenced by cultural traditions and historical events. When creating such a language, the dictionary can be formed both from anywhere there are no more existing words and from words from various natural languages. Its use is possible only for a relatively small circle of people who took place for the study of such a linguistic neoplasm, and the rules in it are often complex. Comprehensive secrets of such languages, as a rule, are engaged in very and very few, mostly linguists.
However, they have artificial languages \u200b\u200band their advantages: they can use encrypters, they are conveniently tolding about something secret on them, with their help you can completely immerse yourself in the world of the work, if the heroes say there with a similar syllable.
To date, there are many languages \u200b\u200bartificially created by a person. But the most famous are only five.
Volyupuk - one of the first artificial languages \u200b\u200b- was invented by Hermann. Thanks to its simplicity and unusualness (all the words of this language were invented by the author) Volyupuk quickly got spread, for some time it was not only talked, but newspapers were published.
Esperanto, like Volyukuk, appeared in the 19th century and even was more popular than the first. In Esperanto, the words are borrowed from several natural languages, if more precisely, from groups of Slavic, Romanesque and German languages. On Esperanto they say to this day, they even live people for whom he is native. This is found in international families, where the spouses speak among themselves on Esperanto, and the children assimilate him from childhood.
IDO - an analogue of Esperanto, improved by the Frenchman Louis Couture and Danchanin Otto with Esperesen. However, such popularity as Esperanto, IO did not conquer.
Quenya is the so-called convertible by the world-famous writer Tolkien. Created on the basis of the ancient groups. Popular among fans of his work.
Slotansky is a very young language created in 2006 to facilitate international communication between the Slavs. Slotansky is a language that is sufficiently understandable to almost all carriers of Slavic languages, including Russians, Ukrainians, Croats, Czechs, Bulgarians and Belarusians.
Thus, on the example of Esperanto and Slotan, we can conclude that artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan bring tangible benefits when communicating media of different languages.
However, this is not worth completing the conversation about languages. In some categories, not only natural and artificial languages \u200b\u200bshould be allocated, but also artificially regenerated.
So, in the Czech Republic at the end of the 18th century, almost the entire population of the country spoke German, and Czech was forgotten. There were conversations in rural areas on his dialects, and then the peasants from different villages with difficulty understood each other. Realizing the sad fate of the native language, the indigenous Czechs took up his recovery, which was very successful. Another thing is that to this day, Czech conversational and Czech literary is, though related, but completely different languages.
A similar story happened with Hebrew, where in the 19th century almost no one spoke. No, he was not forgotten - newspapers were printed on it, the Jews of different countries used it to communicate, but it was not used in everyday life, and therefore many words did not have many words. Therefore, in order to revive this language, it was necessary not only to make people remember about him, but also invent new words.
An artificial recovery attempt was made in relation to another one, almost anyone now an unknown language - a cafearvus, but she was unsuccessful.