What does "Indo-European Languages" mean. Ordinal Russian vocabulary words from Indo-European language
It has been established that the dissemination centers of Indo-European dialects were in a strip from Central Europe and the Northern Balkans to the Northern Black Sea region.
Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(or Ario-European, or Indoberman), one of the largest linguistic families of Eurasia. General features of Indo-European languages, opposing their languages \u200b\u200bof other families, are reduced to the presence of a certain number of regular correspondences between formal elements different levelsrelated to the same in the same units of content (the borrowings are excluded).
The specific interpretation of the facts of the similarities of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bcan be in postulation of a certain overall source of well-known Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(Indo-European Praävik, the Language Basis, the diversity of the ancient Indo-European dialects) or in the adoption of the situation of the Language Union, which was the result of the development of a number of general devils from the original languages.
The composition of the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200bincludes:
Hetto-Luvian (Anatolian) Group - from 18 V. BC.;
Indian (Indoary, including Sanskrit) Group - from 2 thousand BC.;
Iranian (Avestan, Old Parsida, Bactrian) group - from the beginning of the 2nd mil. BC.;
Armenian language - from 5 c. N.E.;
Frigian language - from 6 c. BC.;
Greek group - from 15 - 11 centuries. BC.;
Thracian language - from the beginning of the 2nd thousand to N.E.;
Albanian language - from 15 V. N.E.;
Illyrian language - from 6 c. N.E.;
Venetian language - from 5 BC.;
Italian group - from 6 c. BC.;
Romanesque (from Latin) languages \u200b\u200b- from 3 in. BC.;
Celtic group - with 4 c. N.E.;
German group - with 3 c. N.E.;
Baltic group - from the middle of 1 thousand AD;
Slavic Group - (Protoslavansky from 2 thousand BC);
Torak group - from 6 c. AD
On the incorrect application of the term "Indo-European" languages
Analyzing the term "Indo-European" (languages), we conclude that the first part of the term means belonging to the ethnos, called the "Indians", and with them the coinciding geographical concept - India. Regarding the second part of the term "Indo-European" it is obvious that the "- European" means only the geographical distribution of the language, and not its ethnic belonging.
If the term "Indo-European" (languages) aims to designate a simple geography of the dissemination of these languages, then it, at least, is not full, since, showing the spread of the language from the east to the West, does not reflect its distribution from the north to south. It is also misleading about the modern distribution of "Indo-European" languages, much wider than is indicated in the title.
Obviously, the name of this language family should be generated in such a way that it will display the ethnic composition of the first native speakers, as is done in other families.
It has been established that the dissemination centers of Indo-European dialects were in a strip from Central Europe and the Northern Balkans to the Northern Black Sea region. Therefore, it should be noted that the circumstance should be noted, as a result of which Indian languages \u200b\u200bwere imputed to the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200b- only as a result of the conquests of India and the assimilation of its indigenous population produced by the Arias. And from this it follows that the contribution of directly Indians to the formation of the Indo-European language is negligible and, moreover, malicious from the point of view of the purity of the Indo-European language, since the Dravidian languages \u200b\u200bof indigenous people of India had their low-level language influence. Thus, named using their ethnic designation, the language leads its own name from the nature of its origin. Therefore, the Indo-European family of languages \u200b\u200bin terms of the term "Indo-" it is more correct to call at least "ario", as indicated, for example, in the source.
Regarding the second part of this term, there is, for example, another indicating ethnicity, reading - "-Germansky". However, Germanic languages \u200b\u200bare English, Dutch, Verkhnevensky, Nizhnenenec, Frisian, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish - although they represent the special branch of the Indo-European language group, but differ from other Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bin kind of features. Especially in the field of consonants (the so-called "first" and "second movement of consonants") and in the field of morphology (the so-called "weak lining of verbs"). These features are usually explained by the mixed (hybrid) character of Germanic languages, layering on a clearly non-info-European foreign language basis, in the definition of which opinions of scientists disagree. Obviously, the indo-europeanization of "Pragerman's" languages \u200b\u200bwent to a similar way, as in India, the Aryan tribes. Slavic-Germanic contacts began only in 1 - 2 centuries. AD Therefore, the influence of Germanic adverbs to Slavic language in antiquity could not take place, and later it was extremely small. The German languages, on the contrary, were so strongly influenced by Slavic languages, which themselves, being initially non-invo-European, became a full part of the Indo-European language family.
From here we come to the conclusion that instead of the second part of the term "Indo-European" (languages), to use the term "-Germansky" is incorrectly, since the Germans are not historical generators of the Indo-European language.
Thus, the huge and oldest branch of languages \u200b\u200bwears our name in two formatted arias of non-invo-European peoples - Indians and Germans, who have never been the creators of the so-called "Indo-European language".
About Protoslavyansky as a possible PRATTER "Indo-European" Family languages
From the above seventeen representatives of the Indo-European family in time of their foundation can not be the progenitors of the Indo-European language next languages: armenian language (from 5 century), Frigian language (from 6th century BC), Albanian language (from 15th century AD), Venet's language (from 5 BC), Italian group (from 6th century BC), Romanesque (from Latin) languages \u200b\u200b(from 3 c. BC), Celtic Group (from 4th century), German Group (C 3 in. AD), Baltic Group (from the middle of 1 thousand AD), Torkaya Group (from 6th century AD), Illyrian language (from 6th century AD).
The most ancient representatives of the Indo-European family are: Hetto-Luvian (Anatolian) Group (from 18 V. BC), "Indian" (Indoary) Group (from 2 thousand BC), Iranian group (from the beginning 2nd thousand BC), Greek group (from 15 to 11th centuries. BC), Thracian language (from the beginning of the 2nd thousand to AD).
It is worth noting the existence of two mutually directed objective processes in the development of the language. The first is the differentiation of languages, the process characterizing the development of related languages \u200b\u200btowards their material and structural discrepancies by the gradual loss of general quality elements and the acquisition of specific features. For example, Russian, Belorussky, and Ukrainian languages \u200b\u200barose by differentiation on the basis of Old Russian. This process reflects the stage of initial settlement for significant distances of the people who had previously united. For example, the descendants of Anglo-Saxes moved into a new light, the American language variant is American. Differentiation is a consequence of the difficulty of communicative contacts. The second process is the integration of languages, the process in which the previously differentiated languages, the teams previously used different languages (dialects), begin to use the same language, i.e. merge into one language team. The process of integration of languages \u200b\u200bis usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the relevant peoples and implies an ethnic mixture. Especially often the integration of languages \u200b\u200boccurs between nearby languages \u200b\u200band dialects.
Separately, we will put the subject of our study - the Slavic Group - since in the classification given in the classification, it dated 8 to 9 centuries. AD And this is not true, because in the unanimous consent of the language-language scientists suggest that "the origins of the Russian language go into deep antiquity." At the same time, understanding under the term "deep antiquity" is clearly not a hundred and other years, but much longer periods of history, the authors indicate the main stages of the evolution of the Russian language.
From 7 to 14 century There was an ancient Russian (East Slavic, identified by the source) language.
"His characteristics: Full-things ("Crow", "Malt", "Bereza", "Iron"); Pronunciation "F", "H" on the site of Praslavyansky * DJ, * TJ, * KT ("Hog", "Schacha", "Night"); change of nasal vowels * o, * e in "y", "I"; The ending "-Et" in the verbs of the 3rd face of the multiple number of present and future time; The end of "-" in the names with a soft basis on "-A" in parental case the only number ("Earth"); Many words, not witnessed in other Slavic languages \u200b\u200b("bush", "Rainbow", "Gruss", "Kosheka", "Cheap", "Sapogo", etc.); and a number of other Russian damns. "
Some language classifications are creating special difficulties for awareness of the Slavic language. So, the classification conducted by phonetic signs, the Slavic language is split into three groups. In contrast, the data of the morphology of Slavic languages \u200b\u200brepresent the unity of the Slavic language. All Slavic languages \u200b\u200bretained the decoration forms with the exception of the Bulgarian language (apparently, due to their smallest development among the Slavic chosen by Judochristians as church-Slavic), which has only pronounced pronouncement. The number of cases in all Slavic languages \u200b\u200bis equally. All Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare closely related to a lexical relationship. A huge percentage of words is found in all Slavic languages.
The historical and comparative study of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bdetermines the processes that are experienced by East Slavic languages \u200b\u200bin ancient (dofodal) era and who allocate this group of languages \u200b\u200bin a circle with her related (Slavic). It should be noted that the recognition of the generality of the language processes in the East Slavic languages \u200b\u200bof the Daffoding Epoch should be considered as a sum of slightly varying dialects. Obviously, dialects arise historically with the expansion of the territories involved in representatives of the previous one, and now the dialecting language.
In confirmation, the source indicates that the Russian language up to the 12th century was the language of the commander (called "Old Russian"), which the
"Initially, in the whole of its entirety experienced general phenomena; In the phonetic relationship from other Slavic languages, he was distinguished by completely disagreement and the transition of the general Slavic TJ and DJ in h and w. " And then, the communional language is only "from the XII century. It was finally divided into three main adverbs that had every special history: Northern (North. Great Russian), secondary (later Belarusian and South-Great Russian) and South (Malorusskoe) "[see Also 1].
In turn, the Great-Russian adverb can be divided into subsidiaries of Northern, or Officon, and South, or Akash, and these are the latter. Here it is appropriate to wonder: whether all the three adverbs of the Russian language are equally removed from each other and from the ancestor of their own - the communional language, or any of the shortcomings is a direct heir, and the rest of some branches? The response to this question at one time gave the Slavovyovka of another Tsarist Russia, which detected independence for Ukrainian and Belarusian languages \u200b\u200band declared them by the adverbs of the communional language.
From the 1st to the 7th centuries. The communional language was called Praslavyansky and meant late step Protoslavan language.
Since the mid-2nd millennium, the eastern representatives of the Indo-European family, which autochthonian Indian tribes called Arias (Wed. Aryaman-, Assay. Airyaman- (Aria + Mans), Persian. Erman - "Guest", etc.) separated From the Protoslavyansky space, as indicated above, which was located on the territory of modern Russia, in the strip from Central Europe and the Northern Balkans to the Northern Black Sea region. Aria began to penetrate into the northwestern regions of India, forming the so-called Old Indian (Vedic and Sanskrit) language.
In the 2nd - 1 md. BC. Protoslavyansky stood out "from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages." From the definition of the concept of "dialect" - a variety of language, which preserved its main features, but also having differences - we see that Protoslavansky is, in essence, the Indo-European language itself.
"Slavic languages, representing a nearby group, belong to the family of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(among which are closest to the Baltic languages). The proximity of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bis found in the vocabulary composition, the overall origin of many words, roots, morpheme, in syntax and semantics, system of regular sound renovations, etc. Differences - material and typological - due to the millennial development of these languages \u200b\u200bin different conditions. After the collapse of the Indo-European language unity of Slavs, the Slavs were represented by an ethnic whole with one tribal language, called Praslavyansky - the attitude of all Slavic languages. His story was longer than the story of individual Slavic languages: several millennia Praslavyansky was a single language of Slavs. Dialectic species begin to manifest themselves only in the last millennium of its existence (the end of the 1st thousand to AD and the 1st thousand. N.E.). "
Slavs entered into intercourse with various Indo-European tribes: with ancient baltams, mainly with prouds and yatteli (long-term contact). Slavic-Germanic contacts began in 1-2 centuries. n. e. And were quite intense. With Iranians, the contact was weaker than with the Balta and Pruses. Of non-info-European, especially significant connections with the Ugro-Finnish and Turkic languages. All of these contacts are in varying degrees are reflected in the vocabulary composition of Praslanic language.
Media of the languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European family (1860 million people), originating from a group of nearby dialects, in 3 thousand BC. They began to spread in front of Asia to the south of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caspian region. Given the unity of Praslavyansky for several millennia, counting from the end of the 1st thousand to AD. And giving the concept of "several" the "two" value (at a minimum), we obtain similar numbers when determining the time period and come to the conclusion that in 3rd thousand to AD. (1st thousand. BC) It was Praslavyansky with a single language of Indo-Europeans.
In the sign of insufficient antiquity in our time interval, none of the so-called "most ancient" representatives of the Indo-European family: neither Hetto-Luvian (Anatolian) group (from the 18th century BC), nor Indian (Indoary) Group (from 2 thousand BC), nor the Iranian group (from the beginning of the 2nd thousand BC), nor the Greek Group (from 15 to 11th centuries. BC), Nor Thracian Language (from the beginning of the 2nd thousand to AD).
However, the source further indicates that "on the fate of Indo-European averages K 'and G', Praslavyansky is included in the SATOM group (Indian, Iranian, Baltic and other languages). Praslavyansky has experienced two essential process: the Palamatolization of consonants before j and the loss of closed syllables. These processes transformed the phonetic language of the language, put a deep imprint on the phonological system, led to the occurrence of new alternations, radically transformed flexions. They occurred during the period of a dialectful fragility, therefore it is not possible to reflect in Slavic languages. The loss of closed syllables (last centuries BC and 1-thousand AD) gave a deep peculiarity of the Praslavyan language of the late pore, substantially converting his ancient Indo-European structure. "
In this quote, Praslavyansky has been raised with languages \u200b\u200bwithin the same group, which includes Indian, Iranian and Baltic languages. However, the Baltic language is much more late (from the middle of the 1st thousand AD), and at the same time on it and to this day says a completely insignificant part of the population - about 200 thousand. And the Indian language is not actually an Indian language of the autochthonous population of India, since it was brought to India by Arias in 2 minutes BC. From the North-West, and this is not at all from Iran. This is from the side of modern Russia. If the arias were not the Slavs living in modern Russia, then there is a legitimate question: who were they?
Knowing that the change in the language, its separation in the form of adverbs is directly related to the separation of carriers of different adverbs, it would be possible to conclude that Prashlyani separated from Iranians or Iranians separated from Praslavan in the mid-end of 1 thousand BC. However, "significant deviations from Indo-European type, morphology was already presented in the Praslanian period (mainly in the verb, to a lesser extent in the name). Most of the suffixes were formed on Praslanjanskaya soil. Many novel suffixes arose as a result of the merger of the final sounds of the foundations (themes of the foundations) with Indo-European suffixes -k-, -t-, and others. So, for example, suffixes arose - OK, - uk, - Ik, - Kber, - UK, - Kber - Ak and others. Saving the lexical Indo-European Foundation, Praslavyansky at the same time has lost many Indo-European words (for example, many of the names of domestic and wild animals, many social terms). Ancient words were also lost in connection with various prohibitions (taboo), for example, the Indo-European name of the bear was replaced by the tabulatic medoven - "Honey Feed". "
The main means of education of syllables, words or proposals in Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bis the emphasis (lat. Ictus \u003d blow, emphasis), a grammar term, which are of course different shades of strength and musical height of sound observed in speech. Only it combines individual sounds into syllables, syllables - in words, words - in suggestions. Indo-European Pravoke possessed a free stress, which could stand at different parts of the word, which passed into some separate Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(Sanskrit, the Ancient Original Languages, Baltic-Slavic, Pragermansky). Subsequently, many languages \u200b\u200ba lot from freedom of emphasis has lost. Thus, the ancient typical languages \u200b\u200band Greek have undergone a limitation of the primary freedom of emphasis by means of the so-called "law of three syllables", according to which the emphasis could stand on the 3rd syllable from the end, unless the second syllable from the end was not much; In this latter case, the emphasis should have moved to a long syllable. From Lithuanian languages, Latvian fastened emphasis at the initial syllable of words, which was made by individual Germanic languages, and from Slavic - Czech and Luzhitsky; Of the other Slavic languages, Polish received an emphasis on the second syllable from the end, and from Romanesque languages, French replaced the comparative diversity of Latin stress (already fed by three syllables) by a fixed stress on the final syllable of the word. Slavic languages \u200b\u200bretained Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Svinsky, Polabsky and Kashubsky, and from the Baltic - Lithuanian and Old Parus. Lithuanian-Slavic languages \u200b\u200bhave survived a lot of features, characteristic of the empowered practice.
Of the features of the dialectage membership of the Indo-European language region, it is possible to note the special proximity of the Indian and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages, partly of Itali and Celtic, which gives the necessary instructions on the chronological framework of the evolution of the Indo-European family. Indoiransky, Greek, Armenian detect a significant amount of common isogloss. At the same time, Balton Slavic has a lot of common features with Indoran. Itali and Celtic languages \u200b\u200bare in many ways similar to the German, Venetian and Illiromian. Hetto-Luvay discovers the demonstration parallels with TORARS, etc. .
additional information The Praslanian-Indo-European language can be learned in sources describing other languages. For example, the source writes about Finno-Ugric languages: "The number of speakers in Finno-Ugric languages \u200b\u200bis about 24 million people. (1970, Evaluation). Similar features that have a systemic nature make it possible to believe that the Ural (Finno-Ugric and Sami) languages \u200b\u200bare associated with genetic relationship with Indo-European, Altai, Dravidian, Yukagir, and other languages \u200b\u200band developed from the Nostratic Program. According to the most common point of view, Prasamodia spared about 6 thousand years ago, Prasamodia was separated from Prasamodia and there was approximately the end of the 3rd th. BC. (When the division of the Finno-Perm and Ugric branches occurred), being common in the territory of the Urals and Western Priurally (hypothesis about the Central Asian, Volga-Okrug and Baltic Pranodine, Finno-Ugrations refuted by modern data). In this period contacts with indoirans ... "
Here it is necessary to interrupt the quote, since as we showed above, in contact with the Finno-Ugments were the protoslavlvyans, who taught the Praslavyan language of Indians only from the 2nd thousand to AD, and Iranians to the Urals at the specified period of time We went and ourselves "Indo-European" language also had a language also from the 2nd thousand to AD. "... reflected next to borrowing in Finno-Ugric languages. In 3 - 2nd thousand BC. The resettlement of Finno-Permtsev was held in the western direction (up to the Baltic Sea). "
conclusions
Based on the foregoing, it is possible to indicate such origins and development of the Russian language - the language of the Russian nation belonging to the number of the most common languages \u200b\u200bof the world, one of the official and working languages \u200b\u200bof the UN: Russian (from the 14th century) is the historical heritage and continuation of the Old Russian (1 - 14 centuries) language, which up to 12 V. called the general Slavonic, and from 1 to 7 centuries. - Praslavyansky. Praslavyansky, in turn, is last stage Protoslavyansky's development (2 - 1 thousand BC) of language, in 3rd thousand BC. incorrectly referred to as Indo-European.
When deciphering the etymological significance of the Slavic word, some Sanskrit is incorrect as a source of origin, since Sanskrit himself is formed from the Slavic way to pollution by Dravidian.
Literature:
1. Literary encyclopedia in 11 volumes, 1929-1939.
2. Big Soviet Encyclopedia, " Soviet Encyclopedia", In 30 tons, 1969 - 1978.
3. Small encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, "F.A. Brockauz - I.A. Efron, 1890-1907.
4. Miller V.F., Essays of the Aryan mythology in connection with the ancient culture, vol. 1, M., 1876.
5. Elizarenkova II., Mythology of Rigveda, in the book: Rigveda, M., 1972.
6. Keith A. B., The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, H. 1-2, Camb., 1925.
7. Ivanov V.V., Toporov V.N., Sanskrit, M., 1960.
8. Renou L., Histoire de La Langue Sanscrite, Lyon-p., 1956.
9. Mayrhofer M., Kurzgefastesstes Etymologisches Wortherbuch Des Altindischen, BD 1-3, HDLB., 1953-68.
10. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Ephron, "F.A. Brockauz - I.A. Efron, in 86 volumes, 1890 - 1907.
11. Sievers, Grundzuge Der Phonetik, LPC., 4 ed., 1893.
12. Hirt, Der Indogermanische Akzent, Strasbourg, 1895.
13. Ivanov V.V., Obninto European, Praslavyanskaya and Anatolian Language Systems, M., 1965.
From the book Tyunayeva A.A., History of the emergence of world civilization
www.organizmica. ru
The study of the vocabulary composition of modern English is of great interest in terms of these etymology, since it includes a huge number of words from many languages \u200b\u200brelating to different groups (Latin, Greek, French, German, etc.). Approximately 70% of the vocabulary of English are borrowed words and only 30% are original words. However, it should be noted that not all the original vocabulary refers to the number of the most frequently used words, as well as the most frequency words do not always belong to the original English. Roman conquest, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquest, the British colonial system has played a big role in the development of the dictionary of the English language.
IN english language As one of the languages \u200b\u200bof the West German Group, the following layers of vocabulary are allocated:
1. Obsento-European Word Layerwhich is the basis of the lexical composition of Germanic languages. These include the following:
a) all pronouns and numeral;
b) the name of family members (eg, eng. Mother, Dr. Ind. Mātar, Greek. Mātēr, lat. māter);
c) the names of the body parts and the biological properties of a person (eg., Eng. Nose, Dr. ind. nāsā, lat. Nasus, it. NASE);
d) the names of living beings (eg., English EWE, Dr. Ind. Avih, Greek O (V) is, lat. OVIS);
e) names of nature phenomena, plants, substances (eg, eng. Night, Rus. Night, Dr. Ind. Nakti, Greek. NYX, it. Nacht);
e) the most common adjectives (eg, Rus. New, DR. Navas, Greek. ne (v) OS, lat. Novus, it. neu);
g) verbs denoting the most common actions and conditions (eg, rus. see, lead, Dr. Ind. Vid "know", Greek. (V) Idein, lat. Vidēre).
2. FRIEND FRIEND LIFE FRIENDS FISHING PERSONSFERS) PARTIES OF PERSONSFERV) Poultry and animal animals, verdg) surrounding phenomena and worldland, sead) names of human labor) times) Seasons g) often used verbs, adjectives and adverbs
3) the highest peculiarity is the third group of the original English vocabulary. It belongs to the words that are a purely English combination of various origins of the morpheme. Each of the morpheme in such words has parallels in a number of related languages, but their combination is not found outside of English. The noun Garlic (D.-A. Gar - Leac) has the first morpheme compliance in the Old Arctic (Geirr - Spear), German (GER - dart) and the second morpheme in Icelandic (Laukr - Side), Danish (LOG), Dutch (Look) , German (Lauch). The combination of the specified morpheme does not occur in any of these languages.
From a morphological point of view, invalid words are single, maximum doubled; with phonetics and graphics - the presence of columns W, WH, TW, SW, Y-WRITE, DWELLVVE of the beginning of the word, elementsDG, TCH, NG, SH, TH, EE, LL, EW; From the point of view of stylistics - all the original are neutral; Most invoking english words Multivalued, have the ability to form new words in various ways.
Anodiangroman vocabulary.
Lecture number 12.
1. Obstone Indo-European vocabulary of Germanic languages.
2. German-Slavic field parallel.
3. German-Baltic vocabulary parallel.
4. German-Baltic-Slavic parallels.
5. German-Celtic lexical ties.
6. Hergano-Italian lexical parallels.
7. Obstone German dictionary.
Sources of data on the ancient vocabulary of German languages \u200b\u200bare: 1) Runic lettering 2) Toponymik 3) recording of later texts 4) Modern vocabulary treated with a comparative historical method.
The vocabulary was formed for a long time, it consists ofdifferent chronological reservoirs: the words are general Indo-European, general Germanic, words peculiar to individual German languages, etc.
The bundle is carried out and on the basis of lexical values According to certain semantic groups (the names of the objects of life, the phenomena of nature, etc.)
The general-European vocabulary is based on concrete values. They are reflected in them the world, the phenomena of nature, the things of everyday help, the terms of kinship, numeral, etc.
1. The phenomena of nature.
The sun: Goth. Sunnō, Lat. Sōl, Greek. Hēliós, Dr.-English. Sunna, Dr.-Slav. Slianz, dvn.sunna.
Moon: Goth. Mêna, Dr.-Isp. Man, lat. Mensis, Greek. Men, Dr.-English. Mona, Dr.-Slav. Muaden, dvn. Mâno,
Rain: Goth. RIGN, LAT. Rigo "Orosha", Dr.-English .rezn Dr.-Sp. REGN, dvN. REGAN, lit. Rōkt: Go to the rain, Ukr. Mraka.
Cold, freeze: I.E * Gel: Goth. Kalds "Cold", Dr.-English. Ceald, dvn. Kalt, Lat. Gelu "Cold",
lit. Geluma "Strong Frost", etc. Golot "Ice", Ukr. Obel.
2. Names of animals.
Bear: Dr.-English. bera, dvn. Bgo, lit. Bēras, Ind.-Heb. Root * Ber (cf. RUSS.BURNY).
Wolf: Goth. Wulfs, Dr.angl. WULF, DVN. Wolf, Dr.-ind. VRKAS, RP. LUKOS, LAT.LUPUS, D.Slav. Vlk
3. Plants.
Beech: DR-English. Bōc-trēo "beech, tree", dvn. Buohh, Lat. Phagus, Greek. Phagos, "Oak", RUS. beech,
goth. Boka - "Letter, Book" developed.
Birch: Dr.-Up.- Bjork, Dr.-English- Beork, Birce, Two.- Birihha, st.-Slav - Bruza, Lit.-Berzas, Latvian.- Berzs
4. Man, parts of the body.
Human: Lat. Guma, Dr.-English. ZUMA, DVN. Gomo, Lat. Homo, lit. žmôgus ← From the root
A heart: Goth. Hairto, Dr.-English. Heorte, dvn. Herza, Lat. Cor (Cordis), Greek. Kardia, RUS. a heart
Daughter: Goth. Danhtar, Dr.-English. Dohtor, Dr.-Isp. Dottir, DVN. tohatter, other ind. duhita
dr.-Pru. Dukti, daughter.
Mother: Dr. -p. Moðir, Dr.-English. MōDōR, DVN. Muoter, Dr.-ind. Mātā (R), Greek. Meter, Irl. Mathir,
lit. Mótina, St.Slav. Mamu.
Son: Goth. Sunus, Dr.-Isl. Sonr, Dr.-English. Sunu, dvn. Sunu.
5. CLOVA related to the economic activities of people, pets:
Cattle: goth. Skatts "Money", Dr.-Isl. Skattr "Money, Dan", Dr.-Sax. SKAT "Money",
dr.-English. Scaz "Money", Sovr. Schatz, St.-Glory. Scottle
Corn: Goth. Kaurn, Dr.-Isl. Korn, Dr.-English. SRN, DVN. Korn, lat. Granum, Dr.-Il. Gran,
lit. žirnis - Moroshina, Dr. Pruss. Grain, st.Slav. Speed.
Factors in the formation of the dictionary composition of the language
Modern lexical system capable of satisfying nominative and communicative human needs of the end of the twentieth of the XXI centuries. - The result of long-term development. In active vocabulary The modern person includes units that appeared quite recently ( server, voucher, copier, impeachment) and the words arising in the complementary era ( white, go, mother).
The formation of the dictionary formulation of the Russian language reflects the evolutionary path of the development of the language in the process of human development. The development of the external, material world and the development of a human spiritual world leads to a natural expansion of the vocabulary.
The vocabulary is the most dynamic level in the language system. Its development is caused by the need to naming new phenomena of reality. At the same time, the lexical composition of the language is the best keeper of the memory of the people. After studying the vocabulary of the language of a certain people, it is possible to understand the system of its moral, ethical views, the character, features of the material life, the natural environment in which one or another ethnic has existed. The vocabulary of borrowing can give knowledge about the contacts of the nationality, ethnos with other peoples.
Lexical layers differing in origin
In the aspect of its origin vocabulary, first of all, on the layers original and borrowed vocabulary.
The main group of the words of the modern Russian language is the original Russian vocabulary.
Invoking Russian It is a word that arose in Russian or inherited from the more ancient source language, regardless of what kind of etymological parts, the original Russians or borrowed, it consists.
To the original Russian referring words boat and highway, the last word is formed from the word borrowed from French highway With suffix -N-.
Traditionally, 4 chronological and linguistic reservoirs are made in the formation of the original Russian vocabulary: Indo-European, the Slavonic, East Slavic and Russian words are distinguished.
The second group of Russian vocabulary - borrowing (words, phraseologists, including tracing trays and semi-killes), which have fallen into Russian as a result of language contacts. Interaction of languages \u200b\u200bproceeded in various periods of language development, for example, ship (The Word of Greek origin) entered the general Slavonic, from where he was transferred to Old Russian, then in modern Russian.
Indo-European Lexical Foundation
The most ancient among the original Russian words are indooberopeisms
Indooberopeisms - Words preserved from the era of Indo-European language unity.
According to the assumptions of scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. e. There was an oldest Indo-European civilization, which united the tribes who lived to a voluntarly extensive territory. So, according to some linguists, she stretched from Volga to Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkano-Danube, or South-Russian, localization (see also the theory of Praodina Indo-Europeans: T.V. Gamkrelidze, V.V. Ivanov. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical and typological analysis of the primature and protology. Tbilisi, 1984). Indo-European language community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengal, Sanskrit)
To the Indo-European primary basis, the words denoted
1) Terms of kinship: mother Daughter and etc.;
2) Animal name: goose, Wolf, Sheep and etc.;
3) Trees name: oak, Bereza and etc.;
4) Name of Metals and Minerals: copper, Bronze and etc.
General, East Slavic vocabulary
The second time of the formation of the reservoir of the original Russian vocabulary is overall Slavic lexica.
Overall Slavs - These are words inherited by ancient Russian language from the general Slavonic language, which existed before the V-VI centuries. AD Such words are used, as a rule, in all Slavic languages. See Table 1.
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Table 1
Russian Polish. Czech. Bulge.
Takebrać br.á t. Bera
Bebyć b.ý t. Some, bye
Seewidzieć vid.é t. Seeing, Vedam
The Slavonic language served as a source for the formation of all Slavic languages. He existed in the prehistoric era on the territory of the Dnieper interfold, Bug and the Vistula, populated by the ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. The Slavonic language collapsed, discovering the path to the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian.
We will call some themed groups characteristic of the Non-Slavonic Plastic Organized Russian vocabulary:
the names of household items typical of the person of the primitive era: house, fire, ax;
the names of animals, plants living in the place of residence of the ancient Slavs: tour, fox, deer;
nature phenomena names: snow, stone, winter, storm, thunder, hail;
time Cut Names: month, year, century;
names of minerals: gold, silver, iron.
East Slavic Lexica - These are words that arose during the period of East Slavic Language Unity - during the existence of ancient Russian language, when there were no longer the extraction of Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages.
East Slavic language community has developed to VII-IX centuries. n. e. On the territory of Eastern Europe. Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities go to the tribal unions inhabited here.
These words are found in these three languages \u200b\u200band are not found in the languages \u200b\u200bof other Slavic peoples.
See Table 2.
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Table 2.
Russian Ukrainian Belarusian Polish Czech
Walking a walk of gullycPACEROVA.ć prochazet.
Forget to forget forgetszapomina.ć zapominat.
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Typical thematic groups of East Slavic Plast are
1) animal names, birds: squirrel, daw, horse, bullfinch;
2) Names of labor instruments: ax, blade;
3) the names of household items: badja, basket, crutch ;
4) the names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;
5) Names of settlements: village, Sloboda .
Actually Russian vocabulary
Actually russian words - These are words that appeared in Russian during its separate existence, from the XIV century. Until now.
These words are naturally arising in the language system as an answer to the need to designate new phenomena of the material and spiritual culture of Russian nationalities and the nation. In fact, Russian words are almost all nouns formed by suffixes History, -Orker, Help, - Software, -She (Mason, Undeller, Cleanker, Evaluation, Manicure), Using a suffix Hotelwith the meaning of the current item ( fire extinguisher, fuse), from prefix verbs with the help of a bezaphix method of word formation ( running, clamp), Using a suffix - ost from adjectives ( party). Actually, Russians in the origin are the adverbs of the type maternity, foreign oneapplied education on -E. Type triumphant, comprehensive nouns ( TSU, Lespromkhoz) and many others.
Actually, Russian word can be created
1) in the Russian word forming model from the Russian Morpham itself, for example, millet Peng - nickname, gunpot - a, wheat;
2) in Russian word-forming models from actually Russian and borrowed elements: highway Highways-and computer Computer - N - Cles Ras Glush - I - T;
3) in Russian word-forming models from borrowed components: nigil - change
Actually, Russian education and determine the specific features of the vocabulary of the Russian language, are the main source of development, identify its potential and real opportunities.
Some languages \u200b\u200bthat begin to appear in history around 2000. to XR.E. on the space from the Industance in the East to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean in the West and from Scandinavia in the north to the Mediterranean Sea in the south, have a lot of common features forcing them to admit them various forms The same adverbity that existed earlier. From these languages \u200b\u200bso far presented, at least one of their dialect, the following: Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Slavic, Alban, Armenian, Greek, German, Celtic, Italian (Latin). It is an unknown nurse conditionally called the "Indo-European" language (German scientists call him an "Indo-German"). For the number of Indo-European languages, we do with this we consider any language, which in any time, in any place, for whatever the level of change Sobody the form of the specified adverb and which, thus, continues him in continuous continuity.
This definition is purely historical: it does not imply any characteristics, with all these languages; It only establishes the fact that in the past there was a moment when these languages \u200b\u200bconstituted one language. No, therefore, not a single feature, for which it would always be possible to determine the language as Indo-European. For example, in Indo-European - an animated genus is opposed to inanimately (average), and inside the animated was often the opposition of male and female; But some languages, such as Romanesque, Lithuanian and Latvian, lost the distinction of animated and inanimate; In others, as, for example, in Armenian and Novoperside, there is no difference between childbirth. To establish the belonging of this language to the number of Indo-European, it is necessary and enough, firstly, to detect a certain number of features inherent in Indo-European, such features that would not be explained if this language was not a form of Indo-European language, and The second, to explain how basically, if not in the details, the system of the language under consideration relates to the case, which was in the Indo-European language.
Evidence of coincidence of individual grammatical forms; On the contrary, the coincidence in the vocabulary is almost not at all have evidence. Indeed, from someone else, a completely excellent language does not have borrowings of grammatical form or separate pronunciation; Here it is possible to borrow only the aggregate of the morphological or articulation system, and this means the change of language; But often a separate word or a whole group of words belonging to a certain number of things, especially the words of technical, in the broadest sense of this term; Borrowing words occur independently one of the other can sometimes be performed in unlimited quantities. From the fact that finnish language Many Indo-European words should not be outlined as if he belongs to Indo-European languages, since these words are borrowed from the Indoran, Baltic, German or Slavic languages; From the fact that in the Novoperside language, the mass of semistry words should not be outlined, as if he is not an Indo-European language, since all these words are borrowed from Arabic. On the other hand, no matter how different from Indo-European appearance of the language, it does not follow that this language is non-invo-European: over time, Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bare all less and less common features, however, they still exist and no matter how they transform themselves, They cannot lose their quality of Indo-European languages, for this is their quality there is only a reflection of a historical fact.
The general similarity of the morphological structure does not prove almost nothing, for possible language types do not differ in diversity. Decisive evidential force has separate details that exclude the possibility of accidental coincidence.
There is no reasonable internal base so that the case of the subject is characterized by the end of -S. The test in the language of the nominal case of the only number with the final -s gives the right to consider this language Indo-European all the more so that in most languages \u200b\u200bthe case of the subject coincides with the name of the name without any end. Once, the proof has already been produced by a number of private coincidences, it remains only to deepen it, to establish that the morphological system of the language under consideration in its entirety can be clarified as a result of modification or a number of successive modifications of the original language state. It is possible that the "Indo-European language", in turn, only the form of some previously existing language, whose representatives are also other languages, both now existing and witnessed by the ancient texts. The developmental compliance between the languages \u200b\u200bin Indo-European and threesisky, and Also between the Indo-European and Semitic, with which "Khamitic languages" are connected; Some "Asian" languages.
We can only assume that all the languages \u200b\u200bof the listed groups are related to each other. However, if a number of compliance between Indo-European and other language groups ever be established and proven, the system will not change in the system: only a new comparative grammar, which, of course, will be relatively scarce, is concerned about the comparative grammar of Indo-European languages. Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bare extinguished above richer and more detailed comparative grammar, say, Romanesque languages; We penetrate one step deeper into the past, with the results, less significant, but the method will remain the same.
Conclusions on chapter 1
Indo-europeism - section, extremely important for comparative historical linguistics, as it studies the most common language family in the world. The basis of Indo-generalism is the study of the correspondences between the similar elements of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(with the orientation of their ancient state) and the interpretation of these correspondences.
The comparative historical study of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200brevealed regular conformity between their sounds, words and forms. This can be explained by the fact that all of them are descendants of one disappeared ancient language from which they occurred. Such a language-source is called the Prazyk.
The relationship of languages \u200b\u200bis manifested in their systematic material similarity, i.e., in the similarity of the material from which the exponents of morpheme and words, identical or loved ones are constructed in these languages.
romanesque language Italian Indo-Eucological