Global problems of humanity. essence and solutions

Global problems are called problems that cover the whole world, all of humanity, pose a threat to its present and future and require joint efforts, joint actions of all states and peoples for their solution.

In the scientific literature, you can find various lists of global problems, where their number varies from 8-10 to 40-45. This is due to the fact that along with global problems, there are still many particular problems.

There are also different classifications global problems. Usually, they include:

1) problems of the most "universal" nature;

2) problems of a natural and economic nature;

3) problems of a social nature;

4) mixed problems.

The main global problems include the following.

I. Environmental problem... The depletion of the environment as a result of irrational use of natural resources, its pollution with solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, and radioactive waste poisoning have led to a significant degradation of the global environmental problem. In some countries, the tension of the environmental problem has reached an environmental crisis. The concept of a critical ecological region and an area with a catastrophic ecological situation has emerged. A global environmental threat has emerged in the form of uncontrolled changes in the Earth's climate and destruction of the ozone layer in the stratosphere.

Currently all more countries begins to unite efforts to solve environmental problems. The world community proceeds from the fact that the main way to solve the ecological problem is such an organization of production and non-production activities of people, which would ensure normal eco-development, preservation and transformation of the environment in the interests of mankind and each person.

II. Demographic problem... The population explosion worldwide has already subsided. In order to solve the demographic problem, the UN has adopted the "World Population Action Plan", in the implementation of which both geographers and demographers are involved. At the same time, the progressive forces proceed from the fact that family planning programs can help improve the reproduction of the population. For this, demographic policy alone is not enough. It must be accompanied by an improvement in the economic and social conditions of the people.

III. Peace and disarmament problempreventing nuclear war. A treaty on the reduction and limitation of offensive arms between the countries is currently being developed. Civilization is faced with the task of creating a comprehensive security system, phasing out nuclear arsenals, reducing arms trade, and demilitarizing the economy.

IV. Food problem. Currently, according to the UN, almost 2/3 of humanity lives in countries where there is a constant shortage of food. To solve this problem, mankind must make fuller use of the resources of crop production, animal husbandry and fishing. Moreover, it can go in two ways. The first is the extensive path, which consists in the further expansion of arable, pasture and fishing grounds. The second is an intensive path, which consists in increasing the biological productivity of existing lands. Biotechnology, the use of new high-yielding varieties, and the further development of mechanization, chemicalization and land reclamation will be of decisive importance here.

V. Energy and raw materials problem - first of all - the problem of providing mankind with fuel and raw materials. Fuel and energy resources are constantly being depleted, and in a few hundred years may disappear altogether. Huge opportunities for solving this problem are opened by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and at all stages of the technological chain.

Vi. The problem of human health.Recently, when assessing the quality of life of people, the state of their health has been put forward in the first place. Despite the fact that in the 20th century great strides have been made in the fight against many diseases, a large number of diseases still continue to threaten people's lives.

Vii. The problem of using the World Ocean, which plays an important role in the communication of countries and peoples. Recently, the aggravation of the raw material and energy problem has led to the emergence of the marine mining and chemical industries, marine energy. The aggravation of the food problem has increased interest in the biological resources of the Ocean. The deepening of the international division of labor and the development of trade are accompanied by an increase in shipping.

As a result of all industrial and scientific activities within the World Ocean and the “ocean-land” contact zone, a special component of the world economy arose - the marine economy. It includes mining and manufacturing, fishing, energy, transport, trade, recreation and tourism. Such activity gave rise to another problem - the extremely uneven development of the resources of the World Ocean, pollution of the marine environment, its use as an arena for military activity. The main way to solve the problem of using the World Ocean is rational oceanic nature management, a balanced, integrated approach to its wealth, based on the unification of the efforts of the entire world community.

VIII. The problem of space exploration. Space is the common heritage of mankind. Space programs have become more complex lately and require concentration of technical, economic, intellectual efforts of many countries and peoples. World space exploration is based on the use of the latest achievements in science and technology, production and management.

Each of the global problems has its own specific content. But they are all closely related. Recently, the center of gravity of global problems has shifted to the countries of the developing world. The food problem in these countries has acquired the most catastrophic character. The plight of most developing countries has become the largest human and global problem. The main way to solve it is to carry out radical socio-economic transformations in all spheres of life and activities of these countries, in the development of scientific and technological progress, international cooperation.

2) Globalistics is a field of knowledge that studies the global problems of humanity.

Global problems:

They concern all of humanity, affecting the interests of all countries, peoples, strata of society;

Lead to significant economic and social losses, can threaten the existence of humanity;

They can be solved only with cooperation on a planetary scale.

The main reason for the emergence (or rather, close study) of global problems is the globalization of economic and political relations! è the awareness that the world is interdependent and that there are common problems that are vital to solving.

Dr. reasons: the rapid growth of humanity.

High rates of technological progress

Scientific and technological revolution è transformation of productive forces (introduction of new technologies) and industrial relations (including the relationship between man and nature).

The need for a large amount of natural resources and the realization that many of them will sooner or later run out.

“Cold War” people really felt the threat of human destruction.

The main global problems: the problem of peace and disarmament, demographic, environmental, food, energy, raw materials, the problem of world ocean development, space exploration, the problem of overcoming the backwardness of developing countries, nationalism, lack of democracy, terrorism, drug addiction, etc.

Classification of global problems according to Yu. Gladkov:

1. The most universal problems are watered. and social economy. character (prevention of nuclear war, ensuring sustainable development of the world community)

2. Problems of a natural and economic nature (food, environmental)

3. Problems of a social nature (demographic, lack of democracy)

4. Problems of a mixed nature leading to loss of life (regional conflicts, technological accidents, natural disasters)

5. Problems of a purely scientific nature (space exploration)

6. Small problems of a synthetic nature (bureaucratization, etc.)

The problem and its essence	Causes of occurrence (or exacerbation)	Solutions	Achieved results and creatures. difficulties
1. Prevention of war; the problem of peace and disarmament - the world is under the threat of the destruction of a nuclear war or something like that	1. Two world wars of the 20th century 2. Technical progress. Creation and proliferation of new types of weapons (in particular nuclear weapons)	1. Tighter controls over nuclear and chemical weapons 2. Reductions in conventional arms and arms trade 3. Overall reduction in military spending	1) Signing of international treaties: on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons (1968 - 180 states), on the prohibition of nuclear tests, the convention on the prohibition of development, production, chemical. weapons (1997), etc. 2) The arms trade decreased by 2 rubles. (from 1987 to 1994) 3) Reduction of military spending by 1/3 (for the 1990s) 4) Strengthened control over the non-proliferation of nuclear and other weapons by the international community (Ex: IAEA activities, etc. international organizations) but not all countries have joined the agreements on the non-proliferation of various types of weapons, or some countries are withdrawing from such agreements (Ex: the USA unilaterally withdrew from the ABM Treaty in 2002); The activities of some countries give reason to believe that they are developing nuclear weapons (DPRK, Iran) Armed conflicts do not stop (Lebanon - Israel, the war in Iraq, etc.) - In a word, it is still far from perfect ...
2. An ecological problem - It is expressed in the degradation of the environment and an increase in the ecological crisis - It is manifested in various natural disasters, climate change, deterioration of the quality of water, land, resources	1. Irrational use of natural resources (deforestation, resource waste, drainage of swamps, etc.) 2. Environmental pollution by waste people. activities (metallization, radioactive contamination ... etc.) 3. Economy. development without taking into account the possibilities of the natural environment (dirty industries, gigantic factories, and all these negative factors accumulated and finally è awareness of the ecologist. Problems!	Implementation of environmental policy at the state, regional and global levels: 1. Optimization of the use of natural resources in the process of public production (Pr: introduction of resource-saving technologies) 2. Nature protection (Pr: creation of specially protected natural zones; regulation of harmful emissions) 3. Provision ecological safety of the population. Success depends on the level of socio-economic development of individual countries (it is clear that developing countries cannot afford to produce environmentally friendly garbage bags) + international cooperation!	1) The existence of the problem was realized, measures were started 2) Holding international conferences and forums (UN World Environment Conferences) 3) Signing Int. conventions, agreements, etc. (World Charter for Conservation of Nature (1980), Declaration on Environment and Development (during the conference in Rio de J. in 1992), Helsinki Protocol (set the goal of reducing CO2 emissions), Kyoto Protocol (1997 - limited greenhouse gas emissions gases), Earth Charter (2002), etc. 4) Creation and activity of international governmental and non-governmental organizations, programs (Greenpeace, UNEP) 5) Strict environmental legislation in a number of countries + introduction of environmental technologies, etc. WIS spend on "ecology" 1-1.5% of GDP WIS allocate for "ecology" to poor countries 0.3% of GDP (owed 0.7%) but this problem is paid little attention and funds. Transferring dirty industries is practiced, but the general condition of the Earth does not improve from this. Many developing countries are still on an extensive development path and cannot afford to spend money on "greening".
3. Demographic problem - The population of the Earth is growing too fast (population explosion since the 1960s) food shortages, poverty, epidemics, unemployment, migration, etc.	Most of the developing countries entered the second phase of reproduction (ç wider use of the achievements of world medicine, small successes in the economy) Mortality decreased, and the birth rate remained very high for 2-3 generations	Carrying out demographic policy: - Economic measures (Pr: benefits, allowances) - Administrative and legal (Pr: regulation of the age of marriage, permission of abortion) to conduct a demogr. politicians need a lot of money, then international cooperation is needed	In some countries (China, Thailand, Argentina), where demogr. policy managed to reduce the rate of population growth to 1% per year. In some, a demographer. the explosion began to subside (Brazil, Iran, Morocco, Chile). Basically, this problem is solved only by "advanced" from developing countries. In the poorest (Afghanistan, Uganda, Togo, Benin), the situation has not changed for the better yet. World conferences and forums on population issues are being held. Organizations (UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund)
4. Food problem The norm of a person's nutrition per day \u003d 2400-2500 kcal (on average in the world per person - 2700 kcal) 25% of people do not get enough. protein, 40% - Ven. vitamins This mainly applies to developing countries (the number of undernourished can reach 40-45%)	1) Population growth outstrips growth in grain and other food production (population explosion, erosion, desertification, lack of fresh water, climatic factor) 2) Low social economy. the level of development of many developing countries (there is no money either to produce or buy food)	A. Extensively: Expansion of arable and pasture land (1.5 billion land in reserve) B. Intensively: Using the achievements of the green revolution (see the question about the green revolution).	1) International cooperation in this area (1974 World Food Conference; World Food Council established) 2) Food aid (Ex: 40% of all food imports to Africa) (according to UN report 2006)
5. Energy and raw materials - the problem of reliable supply of humanity with fuel, energy, raw materials	This problem has always existed, especially aggravated (manifested itself on a global scale) in the 70s (energy crisis) Main reasons: too a big increase consumption of mineral fuel and other resources (in the 20th century it was mined\u003e than in the entire history of people) \u003d\u003e depletion of many deposits, deterioration of conditions for resource extraction and development of deposits. reasons for energetic. problems: the need to abandon certain types of "too dirty" fuel, global competition for fuel	A. Traditional Increase in resource extraction · New deposits · Increase in "recoverability" B. Policy of energy and resource conservation (many measures, including focus on the use of renewable and unconventional fuels, use of secondary raw materials) C. Radically new ways of solving - using the achievements of scientific and technological revolution (Ex: nuclear power, the use of hydrogen engines, etc.)	Many new fields were found (Pr: the number of explored oil reserves - 10 rubles since 1950 + world resources are being actively developed) + introduction of new technologies into production Energy saving policy is actively pursued (mainly in VIS) Pr: Energy intensity of GDP VIS for 1/3 (compared to 1970). Activities of the IAEA and other int. organizations (including the coordination of international programs for the development of new types of fuel) BUT: The economy of most countries remains energy-intensive Most countries are trying to solve this problem by “force” Natural resources are still used inefficiently (Ex: Average world level of useful use primary resources does not exceed 1 \\ 3)

The problem of preserving the health of the population is especially relevant in modern society, characterized by a negative characteristic of the main demographic indicators, along with the progressive spread of alcoholism, drug addiction and sexually transmitted diseases.

The state of health of young people, children and adolescents is of particular concern. Absolutely healthy, harmoniously developed children - no more than 2-3%. Another 14-15% of children are practically healthy, and 35-40% have various chronic diseases. At least half of the children have some kind of functional deviation. The data of medical examinations indicate that during the period of study at school, the health status of children deteriorates by 4-5 times. So, by the end of secondary school, every fourth graduate has a pathology of the cardiovascular system, and every third - myopia, poor posture.

Child injury occupies a special place among school pathology. The most common among students are craniocerebral injuries, fractures of limb bones, wounds, dislocations, sprains, bruises. Most of these injuries (up to 60%) occur after school hours: during school breaks and during games - in the yard, on the sports ground, on the street. Road traffic injuries, the frequency of which is increasing from year to year, pose a serious threat to the health of children. A particularly large number of injuries occur in middle school age.

As numerous studies have shown, the state of human health depends most of all on the person himself. Ignorance of the rules of safe behavior, non-observance of a healthy lifestyle, careless attitude to one's health - this is the reason for the high level of injuries, the appearance of various diseases, and the deterioration of the health of young people.

In modern medicine, health and disease are not opposed to each other, but are considered in close relationship. It has been established that “normal” should not always mean complete health, and non-compliance with the norm should mean not only pathology, but also a number of borderline states between health and disease.

According to the definition of the World Health Organization (WHO), "health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being, not limited to the absence of disease." This is "such a state of the human body when the functions of all its organs and systems are balanced with the external environment and there are no painful changes."

Distinguish individual health (human) and collective health (family, professional group, social stratum, population). Human health has long become not only his personal problem, but also the criterion of life in various countries of the world.

The main indicators of the convenience and prosperity of human life are:

♦ the state of the health care system;

♦ sanitary conditions and environment;

♦ percentage of malnourished young children;

♦ attitude towards women in society;

♦ the level of literacy of the population;

♦ organization of obstetrics.

Economic growth, gross national product, the use of modern technologies cannot guarantee the well-being of the nation, since they are accompanied by a growing gap between rich and poor, growing social tension, terrorism and military conflicts.

The health of the population is also determined by social factors:

♦ protection of the population (political, legal, legal);

♦ realization of the rights to work, education, health care, recreation, information, etc .;

♦ the nature of food (its sufficiency and usefulness);

♦ real wages and working conditions;

♦ housing conditions, etc.

The concept of health is defined in accordance with the basic functions performed by a person. What are these features?

Man is a qualitatively new, highest stage of life on Earth, a subject of social and historical activity and culture. A person is gifted with conceptual thinking, reason, free will and verbal speech. Man is a living system, which is based in an inextricable connection: physical and spiritual, natural and social, hereditary and acquired principles.

Individual health can be defined as the ability of interrelated functional structures of the body to ensure the implementation of hereditary programs and reproductive functions, mental abilities and creative activity.

Full health - the state of the body, characterized by a state of dynamic balance between the functions of its systems and organs and environmental factors. The concept of health includes the biological and social characteristics of a person and the assessment of his functional reserves, which allow the body to adapt to various environmental conditions.

The most important indicator of health is not only physical indicators, but also the ability to live comfortably in society, the ability to communicate (socialization), the ability to perceive and assimilate information. The study of the functional state of the body, its level adaptation allows you to monitor health in the dynamics of development, determining the degree of risk of disease and identifying alarming symptoms ontogenesis. There are four options for the functional state of the human body:

♦ satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions;

♦ tension of adaptation mechanisms;

♦ insufficient, unsatisfactory adaptation;

♦ failure of adaptation.

The level of physiological adaptation varies within one age group, as well as the ability to compensate for external influences by including reserve functions. The wider the range of adaptive responses, the better the organism is adapted. The organic range of adaptive reactions, the inability to maintain normal vital activity are manifested by an increased risk of morbidity.

Modern society is interested in improving the level of both the health of each individual and collective health. Is becoming increasingly important valeology - the doctrine of health, opposed to medicine of diseases, but, in fact, based on the principles of preventive medicine. The main task of valeology is to increase the health potential of the population by preventing morbidity and disability.

It should be noted that the ultimate goals of disease medicine and valeology coincide - this is health. However, disease medicine seeks to study and recognize possible diseases and injuries, and then, by curing them, restore health to a person.

The doctrine of health, or valeology, focuses on the probable risk of disease, on the early signs of borderline states, on their stability or time-limited manifestation.

An important task of valeology is the construction of positive guidelines, the establishment of attitudes towards the value of health and human life, the formation of an accessible and intelligible motivation for a healthy lifestyle.

The state of health depends on more than 50% of the individual lifestyle, on the influence of environmental factors - by 25%. This indicates that the reserve in preserving human health lies in the organization of his lifestyle, which depends on valeological culture.

Concept valeological culture includes:

♦ knowledge by an individual of the genetic, physiological, psychological capabilities of his body;

♦ knowledge of methods and means of control and preservation of their psychophysiological status and health promotion;

♦ the ability to spread valeological knowledge to their environment and to the social environment in general.

The way of life also depends on hereditary and acquired conditions, disturbances in the work of adaptive and defense mechanisms, ecology, valeological education.

Physical inactivity, psycho-emotional stress, information overload are increasingly becoming the cause of many diseases. Maintaining health is largely the result of safe living. Every person is obliged to know and follow the principles of safety, the consequences of exposure to traumatic and harmful factors, must foresee the danger and be able to avoid it or weaken the negative effect.

One of the leading tasks of the school course Life safety basics consists in creating students' motivation for a healthy lifestyle and developing an individual way of valeologically grounded safe behavior.

A healthy lifestyle is a person's behavior aimed at maintaining and strengthening health, contributing to a full, meaningful, successful life in which a person could fully reveal and realize his abilities and capabilities.

"Health is not everything, but everything without health is nothing," Socrates said. Only a healthy person has a feeling of fullness of life.

A healthy lifestyle is a lifestyle that brings up a harmoniously developed personality, helping to endure life adversity, mental and physical exerciseincluding natural, social and personal.

Demographic problems are directly related to the problems of maintaining health. The growth of the Earth's population is subject to certain patterns. So, demographers note that with a low level of industrial development, birth and death rates are quite high, as a result of which the population grows slowly. In a highly developed industrial society, the birth rate decreases and the rate of population growth also decreases. At the same time, in highly developed countries, mortality is decreasing and life expectancy is increasing, which leads to an increase in the population. Thus, the average life expectancy in some countries is over 80 years (Andorra, Macau, Japan, Australia, etc.).

In modern Russia, there is a particularly unfavorable dynamics of demographic indicators over the past 15 years. During this time, the population of Russia has decreased from 150 million to 143 million people, the birth rate has decreased and the death rate has increased. According to experts, the population of the Russian Federation by 2015 will be 137 million people, and by 2050 - less than 100 million people. The average life expectancy in our country is 67 years: for women - 71 years, for men - 60 years. Such a large difference can be explained by the prevalence of unhealthy lifestyle habits among men. The main causes of death in our country are cardiovascular and oncological diseases, injuries and accidents, which are the result of an unhealthy lifestyle and abuse of psychoactive substances - alcohol, tobacco, drugs.

For solving demographic problems, state policy is of particular importance - the implementation of programs aimed at creating favorable social and natural conditions for the life of the population. The most vulnerable segments of the population - young families, orphans, single mothers, etc. - should receive special support from the state.



COLLEGE number 1563

EASTERN DISTRICT OFFICE

(VAO)

ESSAY

on the economic and social geography of the world

on the topic: "Global problems of human health"

Completed: student 10 "B" class

Kandratieva Anastasia

Teacher: Voronina Svetlana Vyacheslavovna

moscow city

2004 year

1. Preface. The concept of global

problems - page 1

2. What is Medical Geography - page 3

3. Development of medical geography - page 5

4. Medical geography in the twentieth century - p. 7

5. Plague - page 11

6. Smallpox - page 14

7. Smallpox against AIDS - page 15

8. AIDS - page 15

9. Cholera - page 18

10. Schizophrenia - page 19

11. Diseases that have appeared

in our century - page 22

12. Conclusion - page 51

13. References - p. 53

Global problems of human health.

1. Preface. The concept of global problems.

Global problems are called problems that cover the whole world, all of humanity, pose a threat to its present and future and require joint efforts, joint actions of all states and peoples for their solution.

There are various classifications of global problems. But usually among them there are:

1. Problems of the most "universal" nature,

2. Problems of a natural and economic nature,

3. Problems of a social nature,

4. Problems of a mixed nature.

Older and newer global problems are also distinguished. Their priority may also change over time. So, at the end of the XX century. environmental and demographic problems have come to the fore, while the problem of preventing a third world war has become less acute.

Global problems are divided:

1. ecological problem;

2. demographic problem;

3. the problem of peace and disarmament, the prevention of nuclear war;

4. food problem - how to provide food for the growing population of the Earth?

5. energy and raw materials problems: reasons and solutions;

6. human health problems: a global problem;

7. the problem of using the World Ocean.

As we can see, there are many global problems, but I would like to dwell on the Global problem of human health. I'm in a medical class and that's why I chose this topic. As will be disclosed below, infectious diseases that claimed thousands of lives in antiquity, unfortunately, continue to occur today, although medicine has stepped forward since that time thanks to scientific progress and the great discoveries of medical scientists, biologists, and ecologists. I hope that as a future doctor, and maybe an infectious disease specialist, I will be able to take part in the development of new methods of treating diseases.

Recently, in world practice, when assessing the quality of life of people, the state of their health has been put forward in the first place. And this is not accidental: after all, it is precisely this that serves as the basis for a full life and activity of each person, and of society as a whole.

In the second half of the XX century. great successes have been achieved in the fight against many diseases - plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, polio, and other diseases.

Many diseases continue to threaten people's lives, often with a truly global spread. Among them are cardiovascular diseases, from which 15 million people die every year in the world, malignant tumors, venereal diseases, drug addiction, and malaria. An even greater threat to all of humanity is AIDS.

Considering this problem, we must keep in mind that when assessing a person's health, one cannot be limited only to his physiological health. This concept also includes moral (spiritual), mental health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia. That is why human health continues to be one of the priority global problems.

Human health largely depends on natural factors, the level of development of society, scientific and technological achievements, living and working conditions, the state of the environment, the development of the health care system, etc. All of these factors are closely interconnected and together, either contribute to health promotion, or cause certain diseases.

Medical geography studies natural conditions in order to identify the natural effects of a complex of these conditions on human health. In this case, socio-economic factors are certainly taken into account.

The development of medical geography as a science spans millennia; it depended on the development of many other sciences, primarily on geography and medicine, as well as on physics, chemistry, biology, etc. Each new discovery, achievement in these areas of knowledge contributed to the development of medical geography. Scientists from many countries of the world have contributed to the definition of the goals and objectives of medical geography, its content. However, many questions of this science remained controversial and require further study.

2. What is Medical Geography?

You know that geography is a complex science representing a system of natural and social knowledge that reveals the relationship between the components of natural phenomena, between man and his environment. You are also familiar with the word "medicine" (from the Latin medicina) - a system of knowledge and practical activities aimed at preserving and strengthening human health, prolonging his life, recognizing, preventing and treating diseases.

Why are two concepts - "geography" and "medicine" - put side by side?

Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov wrote: "An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible, therefore the scientific definition of an organism must also include the environment that influences it." Human body - a complex system... On the one hand, as a biological creature, a person is influenced by various natural physical, chemical and biological factors of his environment. On the other hand, the specificity of his relationship with the environment is determined by social factors, since a person is also a social being.

Under the human habitat, or the environment, it is customary to understand a system of interconnected natural and anthropogenic objects and phenomena, among which the life and activities of people take place. In other words, this concept includes natural, social, as well as artificially created by man factors of his environment, the totality and interconnection of which create the necessary prerequisites for his life and work.

It has long been noticed that certain human diseases are found in certain parts of the world, occur after contact with certain types of plants and animals that live in specific natural conditions. The knowledge accumulated in this area made it possible to single out an independent branch of medicine - geographic pathology (pathology (from the Greek pathos - suffering, disease) - the science of diseases, morbid conditions of the body. Geographic pathology - a particular pathology - studies the spread of certain diseases in various localities the globe)).

What is medical geography?

Medical geography is a branch of science that studies the natural conditions of an area in order to understand the patterns of influence of a complex of conditions on human health, and also takes into account the influence of socio-economic factors.

This definition was formulated by A.A. Shoshin in the early 60s. A complex of natural conditions is understood to mean certain natural systems: landscapes, physical and geographical areas, natural zones, which are the interconnection of natural components - relief, climate, soil, water, vegetation, animals.

Socio-economic factors include the characteristics of the life and activities of people, industry, agriculture, transport and communication routes, non-production sphere.

The first ideas about the influence of natural and socio-economic factors on human health began to form in ancient times, as evidenced by archaeological data, elements of medical activity reflected in the language, folk epic, as well as in works of art that mention various painful conditions and medical care for them, preserved ancient scriptures (treatises). With the development of human society - the complication of the economy, the emergence of new tools, their improvement - new diseases arose and the need to provide appropriate medical care.

Thus, with the development of hunting, injuries in collisions with wild animals became more frequent; improved primitive trauma care - treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations. The need for trauma care has also increased due to clan and tribal wars in the shaping of human society.

The observation of primitive people allowed them to discover a special effect on the body of some plants (analgesic, aphrodisiac, laxative, diaphoretic, hypnotic, etc.), which made it possible to use them to alleviate painful conditions.

Since ancient times, the sun, water, in particular mineral water, as well as physical exercises, rubbing (massage), etc. have been used among therapeutic agents.

The medical activity of primitive man reflected the helplessness of man before the forces of nature and his lack of understanding of the world around him. Nature in his mind is inhabited by diverse spirits, supernatural beings. All natural phenomena and objects - wind, thunder, lightning, frost, rivers, forests, mountains, etc. had their corresponding spirits. Therefore, ancient medicine was called demonology. (demonology is the doctrine of evil spirits, historically dating back to primitive belief in spirits).

Among the ancient peoples, the names of diseases, for example, the Old Russian ones - fever, fever, gnawing and others, and the beliefs and rituals associated with them reflected the idea of \u200b\u200bthe disease as a special creature that penetrated the body. Even the very names of these harmful creatures often conveyed various symptoms of diseases, for example, various fevers in ancient Russian folk medicine had the names of Lomey, Pukhtey, Korchey, Zheltey, Ogney, Shaking.

The study of the culture of primitive society shows that demonological concepts were not the only ones for understanding disease and health. Along with them, and even before they arose and developed, there were techniques based on the observation of objects and natural phenomena, on the accumulation of everyday practical experience of ancient people.

3. Development of medical geography in Russia.

The beginning of the formation of domestic medical geography dates back to the first quarter of the 13th century, when, according to the decree of Peter 1, foreign doctors who were in the Russian service were obliged to collect and record information about the properties of mineral waters, medicinal plants, and poisonous animals. Medical and geographical information is contained in the works of the first Russian geographers and scientists, primarily M.V. Lomonosov, who in his works in 1753 points out the importance of weather for health.

In 1762, Jacob Monzey wrote about the need to engage in natural science observations, researching the location, weather, and customs of local residents that can affect health.

Pavel Zakharovich Kondoidi, an outstanding figure in the national health care and military medical service, participating in numerous military campaigns, noticed the connection between the health status of soldiers and the natural conditions of the territory on which troops are stationed or hostilities are being conducted. The first program of medical-geographical description of the area in Russia and abroad was the "Instruction for the study of the causes of diseases in Kizlyar", compiled by P.Z. Kondoidi based on the analysis of the reasons for the high incidence of the soldiers of the Kizlyar fortress who guarded the trade routes from Russia to Persia. The first medical faculty of Moscow University was opened in 1764 and managed to train only a few dozen doctors in the 18th century. Among the subjects they were taught were chemistry and balneology, mineralogy and botany. As evidenced by the archival developments of medical historians, graduates of the Faculty of Medicine sent to the Medical College a large number of scientific essays with detailed medical and geographical information that were of great practical importance for combating epidemics and for improving the conditions for the deployment and living of troops. A number of such works are devoted to issues of nosogeography, i.e. the spread of disease.

For the first time (1864) in the domestic literature, the content and tasks of medical geography were considered by the chief physician of the Kutaisi military hospital N.I. Toropov. In his work "Experience of the medical geography of the Caucasus with respect to intermittent fevers" he wrote: "In order to be able to prevent any disease, one must first of all know why and where it occurs, ie know the reasons for its development in the body and the place of its distribution on Earth. The first question is objectively answered by the study of the very nature of nature, and the second by medical geography. "

At the beginning of the 19th century, medical geography in Russia reached its peak. In the first decades, in connection with the wars in which Russia participated, the questions of military medical geography were especially widely developed. The importance attached to medical geography is evidenced by the fact that this discipline was taught at a number of Russian universities, in particular at the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg.

The largest figures of Russian medicine (M.L. Mudrov, S.P. Botkin, N.I. Pirogov, I.M.Sechenov) paid great attention to the use of climatic factors for therapeutic purposes. So, Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881), an outstanding Russian surgeon, in 1847 described the influence of the Caucasus climate on the health of military personnel and gave a detailed description of the features of treatment and evacuation of patients in a mountainous climate.

In 1893, a book was published by the outstanding Russian climatologist and geographer Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov "Study of climates for the purposes of treatment and hygiene", in which the author develops the idea of \u200b\u200bclimatotherapy, and also examines the influence of meteorological factors (primarily the change of air masses, the passage of atmospheric fronts) on the body person.

By the end of the 19th century, in connection with the development of microbiology, epidemiology, sanitary statistics and hygiene, the nature of medical and geographical research changed significantly. There is growing interest in the study of socio-economic conditions, their impact on health, morbidity and mortality, and the organization of health care. So, in 1870, in the preface to the first volume of the "Medico-topographic collection", environmental and sanitary-hygienic issues were included in the definition of the content of medical geography: "To present a picture of the state of nature and human society in a given area, to show the interaction between them, the results of a reasonable treatment of a person with nature, the benefit that he can derive from it, and how he can protect himself from its destructive actions, ... as well as living conditions that change the nature of a given area to the detriment of its inhabitants ... "

During this period of development of medical geography, scientists began to widely use not only descriptive, as it was in the past, but also statistical, cartographic and historical research methods.

4. Medical geography in XX century.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. the development of medical geography in Russia has stopped. One of the reasons for this is the differentiation of sciences that began at that time. Interest in in-depth penetration into certain areas of knowledge has increased. Medical geography, with its general complex approaches, began to lose its significance. This state of science persisted until about the 1920s.

At this time, domestic medical geography was understood by a number of authors as a branch of general geography that studies the geographical spread of diseases, i.e. medical geography was reduced to nosogeography. This point of view persisted for quite a long time, and was shared by Daniil Kirillovich Zabolotny (1866-1929) - one of the founders of Russian epidemiology.

D.K. Zabolotny graduated from the Natural Sciences Department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Novosibirsk University and the Medical Faculty of Kiev University. He proved through experiments that the introduction of the cholera vaccine through the mouth protects against cholera diseases. He devoted many years to studying the plague, took part in the creation of the first anti-plague laboratories. He experimentally proved the identity of the origin of bubonic and pneumonic plague and healing effect antiplague serum. Zabolotny is the creator of the doctrine of the natural focus of plague. In St. Petersburg, he organized the first department of bacteriology in Russia; in Odessa - the world's first department of epidemiology; in Kiev - Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology.

Zabolotny considered medical geography to be a branch of medicine. In his article "Medical geography (nosogeography)" (1929), he wrote: "Medical geography (nosogeography) is a branch of medicine that studies the spread of various diseases, mostly infectious, on the globe. Its tasks include establishing the territories most affected by this form of the disease, as well as studying external factorsinfluencing the change in the disease distribution map ”.

During the Great Patriotic War, the entire scientific potential of medicine was mobilized to serve the army. Since 1943. research on military medical geography began. During this time, a huge amount of observations and active data on the influence of external conditions on the human body have been accumulated. Healthcare required comprehensive medical and geographical research in the development of new territories, which revived interest in medical geography.

In the 1950s, a collection of extensive material on regional pathology, the study of endemic foci of some diseases began, a comprehensive expeditionary study of previously unexplored and economically unexploited territories began, especially in Siberia and the Far East. Many of these expeditions were organized and carried out under the guidance and with the personal participation of an academician of medicine Evgeny Nikanorovich Pavlovsky.

The biography of E.N. Pavlovsky is the pages of the development of many sciences, including medical geography. E.N. Pavlovsky is the author of 800 scientific works, the creator of the doctrine of the natural focus of diseases, which has received wide world fame and recognition. He discovered the most essential patterns underlying natural focal diseases, proposed a genetic classification according to their origin, age, specificity of pathogens, etc., formulated the main provisions of landscape epidemiology. Establishing a connection between natural foci of diseases with certain geographic landscapes makes it possible to determine in advance the likelihood of encountering a particular infection and to take the necessary preventive measures in advance.

Under his leadership and with his personal participation, 170 complex expeditions were carried out to study tick-borne relapsing fever, fevers, tularemia, etc. Many carriers of pathogens of a number of diseases were studied in detail.

E.N. Pavlovsky and his students carried out numerous studies on the fauna, biology and ecology of various groups of the animal world.

A great contribution to the development of domestic medical geography was made by a remarkable scientist, professor Alexey Alekseevich Shoshin who formulated the definition of medical geography. The great merit of A.A. Gorin are the main directions of scientific research in the field of medical geography, which he identified, which can be formulated as follows:

medical-geographical assessment of individual elements of nature, individual natural complexes and economic conditions that affect the state of human health;

development of medical and geographical forecasts for previously inhabited areas subject to future economic development, as well as those territories within which nature is most intensively transformed as a result of human economic activity;

drawing up medical and geographical maps reflecting the positive and negative impact of the environment and socio-economic conditions on the health status of people;

studying the regularities of the geography of individual diseases and drawing up maps of their distribution.

For the development of medical geography, new theoretical provisions of a fundamental nature were important. This is, first of all, the doctrine of the natural focus of diseases and landscape epidemiology, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, the theory of landscape science, complex climatology, regional pathology and balneology.

In the 80s, the main areas of medical and geographical research remain a priority. Medical and geographical forecasting, on the basis of which programs for the development of health care and the prevention of diseases caused by environmental factors, are being drawn up, is qualitatively new in these years. As before, among the problems of medical geographers, an important place is given to the issues of human adaptation to extreme conditions, nosogeography, epidemiology.

During this period, a great contribution to the development of medical and geographical research was made by E. N. Pavlovsky's student V. Ya. Podolyan.

Recognition of the merits of medical geographers was the awarding of the State Prize to a large group of domestic scientists, whose works contributed to the formation and development of medical geography in our country. Among the recipients of this high award are A.A. Shoshin and V. Ya. Podolyan, N.K. Sokolov, E.L. Raiyakh and many others.

The twentieth century ended. unusual - for the first time in the foreseeable history, there have been global changes in the geographical (natural and social) conditions of life on Earth, the consequences of which are not always predictable and a catastrophe is not excluded if destructive phenomena continue to grow in the new century. At the same time, in different regions already now, during the life of only one or two generations of people, the landscapes and the entire historical geographic environment of peoples' life have fundamentally changed from local and global reasons, because of which people are now usually in a state of chronic maladjustment and for everything what is happening pays with their health and future. Over the past century, the world scientific, technical and social development was distinguished by the closeness of many negative processes that took place in nature, society and the state of human health. True geographical knowledge about the essence of changes on the face of the Earth, countries, regions remained, for the most part, not in demand by the world community. Progressive scientific developments have not always been used. In particular, the long-term attempt of the Geographical Society of the USSR to create a systemic medical-geographic cadastre of the country, with the subsystems of republics and regions, was not realized. By the beginning of the XXI century. many problems of maintaining health for each person personally and for all peoples are rooted in the world. To resolve them, an objective systemic analysis of what happened in the last century and a transition to more civilized ways of human development is needed. This progressive output can only be optimal with the active participation of geography and medicine. Doctors are the first to notice and evaluate changes in nature and society according to the most reliable indicator - the state of human health. A number of technogenic and social processes cause changes in the quality of the geographic environment: its saturation with new, often unusual for humans, environmental risk factors. Social and economic (technological, radiation, toxic, electromagnetic, etc.), environmental, spiritual, moral, psychological, informational and other risk factors for diseases for all groups of the population are growing uncontrollably. Therefore, the ecological and other non-infectious pathology of the main systems of the human body is growing. Conditions arise for the return of epidemic infectious diseases such as plague, smallpox and the like.

5. Plague.

Plague has been known since ancient times. Large epidemics of ancient history, known as the "plague of Thucyda" (430-425 BC), "the plague of Antonian or Galen" (165-168 AD) and the "plague of Cyprian" (251-266 BC). AD), should be attributed to epidemics "of other origin (typhoid diseases, diphtheria, smallpox and other epidemic diseases with significant mortality)" and only the "Plague of Justinian" (531-580 AD) was really real epidemic of bubonic plague. Appearing in Constantinople, this epidemic continued there for several years in the form of isolated cases in a mild form, but at times it gave large outbreaks. In 542. a large plague epidemic began in Egypt, spreading along the northern coast of Africa and in western Asia (Syria, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor). In the spring of the following year, the plague epidemic spread to Constantinople, quickly took on a devastating character and lasted more than 4 months. The flight of residents only contributed to the spread of the infection. In 543. outbreaks of plague appeared in Italy, then in Galia and along the left bank of the Rhine, and in 558 again in Constantinople. Periodic outbreaks of plague continued in southern and central Europe and the Byzantine Empire for many years.

Already at that time, all forms of plague known now were registered, including lightning-fast, in which death occurred in full health. It was surprising that in cities where the plague raged, whole neighborhoods or individual houses remained spared, which was repeatedly confirmed later. Facts such as the exquisiteness of recurrent diseases and relatively less frequent infections of the attendants did not escape attention.

Individual outbreaks of plague were observed in various places in Europe and in the 7th-9th centuries. the epidemics in IX were especially severe. But in the fourteenth century, the plague "black death" reached unprecedented spread and strength in history. The epidemic began in 1347. and lasted almost 60 years. No state was spared, not even Greenland. During the years of the second pandemic in Europe, more than 25 million people died, i.e. about a quarter of the total population.

The XIV century pandemic provided a wealth of material for the study of plague, its signs and methods of spread. The recognition of the contagious origin of the plague and the appearance in some Italian cities of the first quarantines also belong to this time.

It is difficult to say where the “black death” came from, but a number of authors indicate Central Asia as such. It was from there that three trade routes went to Europe: one to the Caspian Sea, the second to the Black Sea, and the third to the Mediterranean (through Arabia and Egypt). Therefore, it is not surprising that in 1351-1353. the plague has come to us. It should be noted, however, that this was not the first epidemic in Russia. Back in the XI century. in Kiev there was a "pestilence on the people." How terrible the devastation caused by the plague in Russia in 1387 was, can be judged at least by Smolensk, where after the outbreak of the plague, only 5 people remained who left the city and closed the city filled with corpses.

The plague continued to be registered in Russia in the 19th century. In Odessa, for example, it was entered 5 times.

In 1894. A. Iversen discovered the causative agent of the plague, and V.M. Khavkin in 1896. proposed a killed plague vaccine, which is still used in India.

Plague is an acute natural focal infectious disease caused by the plague bacillus. Refers to especially dangerous infections. A number of natural foci remain on the globe, where plague constantly occurs in a small percentage of rodents living there. Plague epidemics among humans have often been caused by the migration of rats that become infected in natural foci. From rodents to humans, microbes are transmitted through fleas, which, when animals die massively, change their host. In addition, the path of infection is possible when hunters are processing the skins of killed infected animals. A fundamentally different infection from person to person, carried out by airborne droplets.

The causative agent of the plague is resistant to low temperatures, it remains well in the sputum, but at a temperature of +55 degrees it dies within 10-15 minutes, and when boiled, it almost instantly. Enters the body through the skin, mucous membranes respiratory tract, digestive tract, conjunctiva. When a flea infected with plague bacteria bites, a person may develop skin swelling at the site of the bite. Then the process spreads through the lymphatic vessels to the lymph nodes, which leads to their sharp increase, fusion and the formation of a conglomerate (bubonic form). The bubonic form of plague is characterized by the appearance of sharply painful conglomerates, most often inguinal lymph nodes on one side. The incubation period is 2-6 days. At the same time, there is an increase in other groups of lymph nodes - secondary buboes. The severity of the patient's condition gradually increases by the 4-5th day, the temperature can be elevated, sometimes high fever appears immediately, but at first the patient's condition often remains generally satisfactory. This explains the fact that the sick bubonic plague a person can fly from one part of the world to another, considering himself healthy. However, at any time, the bubonic form of plague can turn into a secondary septic or secondary pulmonary form. Septic and pneumonic forms of plague occur, like any severe sepsis.

The most important role in diagnosis in modern conditions is played by the epidemiological history. Arrival from zones endemic for the plague (Vietnam, Burma, Bolivia, Turkmenistan, Karakalpak Republic), or from antiplague stations of a patient with the above-described signs of a bubonic form or with signs of severe hemorrhages and bloody sputum-pneumonia with severe lymphadenopathy is for the doctor of the first contact is a sufficiently serious argument for taking all measures to localize the alleged plague and its accurate diagnosis. It should be emphasized that under the conditions of modern drug prevention, the likelihood of illness among personnel who have been in contact with a coughing plague patient for some time is very small. Currently, there are no cases of primary pneumonic plague among medical personnel. Establishing an accurate diagnosis must be carried out using bacteriological studies. The material for them is the punctate of the festering lymph node, sputum, patient's blood, discharge from fistulas and ulcers.

If there is a suspicion of plague, the patient must be immediately hospitalized in an infectious hospital box. If possible, medical personnel put on an anti-plague suit, if not, then gauze masks, kerchiefs, shoe covers. All staff receive immediate preventive antibiotic treatment, which continues throughout the days they spend in the isolation ward. Plague is treated with antibiotics.

Under the conditions of modern therapy, the mortality rate in the bubonic form does not exceed 5-10%, but in other forms the percentage of recovery is quite high if the treatment is started early.

See photos in the appendix.

6. Smallpox.

Ancient Indian and Chinese manuscripts bring to us descriptions of terrible epidemics of smallpox. The sick person developed a fever, a headache, general weakness, after 3-4 days, the entire body was covered with fluid-filled bubbles (pockmarks). The disease lasted for about two weeks, and up to 40% of patients died. The children were the most ill. Those who had been ill at the site of pockmarks formed scars. Sometimes pockmarks poured out in front of our eyes, which led to blindness.

Smallpox came to Europe later than to the East - in the Middle Ages. For the first time entering new countries, this disease raged with special force. In Iceland in 1707. smallpox killed more than two thirds of the population.

In 1796. Jenner, with his method of vaccination (vaccination), laid the foundation for the fight against this disease.

Smallpox is an acute viral disease related to quarantine infections. It is characterized by fever, general intoxication and pustular rash. The causative agent belongs to smallpox group viruses, well preserved when dried. The virus enters the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract.

The incubation period lasts 5-15 days. The disease begins acutely. Body temperature rises with chills. Patients are worried about weakness, headache, pain in the lower back, sacrum, less often nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain. The skin of the face, neck and chest is hyperemic, the vessels of the sclera are injected. A “harbinger” rash that disappears quickly may appear. On the 4th day of illness, the body temperature decreases, the patient's well-being somewhat improves, and at the same time, the exanthema characteristic of smallpox appears. The elements of the rash are spots that turn into papules, then into vesicles, and by the 7-8th day of illness - into pustules. From the 14th day of the disease, the pustules turn into crusts, after falling off, which remain scars. The vaccinated smallpox is easy, sometimes it resembles chickenpox.

Smallpox varicella is an acute viral disease with airborne transmission, which occurs mainly in childhood and is characterized by a febrile condition, papulovesicular rash, and a benign course. The causative agent of chickenpox belongs to viruses of the herpes group, unstable in the external environment. Penetrates into the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. After the incubation period, a characteristic rash appears on the body. The incubation period lasts an average of 14 days.

In 1967. The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a campaign to finally eradicate smallpox worldwide. For 1967. in the world have been ill with smallpox more than 2 million. man. In 1971. the last case of smallpox was recorded in America, in 1976. - in Asia, in 1977. - in Africa. Three years later, in 1980, the WHO announced that smallpox was finally defeated throughout the world. Now, not a single inhabitant of the planet is sick with this disease, and the pathogen of smallpox continues to live in only three laboratories (in the USA, Russia, South Africa).

Russian scientists from the Novosibirsk Scientific Center "Vector" have developed a new, modified version of the smallpox vaccine. This new version of the vaccine can simultaneously protect people from smallpox and hepatitis B.

7. Smallpox against AIDS.

Recent studies by American scientists suggest that the smallpox vaccine may help protect people from the AIDS virus. A group of researchers from George Mason University in Virginia found in the laboratory that blood cells of people vaccinated against smallpox are four times less susceptible to infection with the AIDS virus.

Many researchers have suggested a link between immunity against smallpox and against the AIDS virus. Some researchers have shown that older people who were vaccinated against smallpox were less likely to contract AIDS.

43 million people worldwide have AIDS and 28 million have died from it. Work on an AIDS vaccine has so far been unsuccessful.

Smallpox was eradicated in 1979. Hundreds of millions of people have been vaccinated against the virus. Vaccinations have now resumed in many countries over fears that the deadly virus could now be used as a biological weapon.

Photos - see in the application

8. AIDS.

What is a virus?

A virus is the smallest microorganism that can only be seen under a very powerful microscope.

Viruses live inside living cells that make up all tissues of the human body. There are billions of such cells in our body. They are organized into groups and perform different functions.

The outside of the cell is called the membrane. It is like the skin of a cell that protects it; inside the cell there is a liquid and a nucleus. The kernel plays a very important role. This is a kind of minicomputer that programs and controls the vital activity of the cell.

When a virus enters the human body, it finds a cell that lets it in and changes the program of the cellular "computer" in it. Now, instead of functioning normally and performing its duties, the cell begins to produce viruses. Such viruses can cause various diseases: flu, measles, chicken pox. In this case, a person gets sick for a while, but quickly recovers thanks to the immune system, which immediately fights the virus and defeats it.

The human immunodeficiency virus differs from other viruses and poses a great danger precisely because it attacks the cells that must fight the virus.

How is HIV transmitted?

Fortunately, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted from person to person only under certain conditions and much less frequently than other diseases such as influenza and chickenpox are triggered.

HIV lives in blood cells and can be passed from one person to another if the blood infected (infected) with HIV enters the blood of a healthy person. In order not to get infected through someone else's blood, it is enough to observe elementary precautions where you have to deal with blood. For example, make sure that there are no cuts or abrasions on the body. Then, even if the patient's blood accidentally gets on the skin, it will not be able to penetrate the body.

So how is this ill-fated virus transmitted? Here are some real-life examples. Jenny's father, Tony, was diagnosed with the HIV virus. During the operation in the hospital, he had to undergo a blood transfusion. As it turned out, the blood injected into him already contained the virus. Having discovered that the virus can be transmitted in this way, doctors have developed a number of measures to prevent the possibility of its presence in donated blood. Transmission of the virus through blood transfusion is now almost impossible.

Injection needles should be disposable only. If they are used repeatedly, then the blood of an HIV-infected person can enter the blood of a healthy person. The virus can be transmitted to a child from a sick mother. Developing in her womb, he is connected to her by the umbilical cord. Blood flows through the blood vessels in both directions. If HIV is present in the mother's body, then it can be transmitted to the child. In addition, there is a risk of infection in infants through breast milk.

HIV can also be transmitted through sexual contact.

How to detect HIV?

Peter and Clara are brother and sister. One of them has HIV, the other does not, but there is no way to tell by their appearance.

For example, a person who has chickenpox develops a rash. It becomes clear to him and to everyone that he is sick with chickenpox.

But HIV for a long time, and often for years, may not be detected by anything. At the same time, for quite a long time, a person feels absolutely healthy. This is what makes HIV very dangerous. After all, neither the person himself, into whose body the virus has penetrated, nor the more those around him, know about anything. Not knowing about the presence of HIV in his body, this person can unwittingly infect others.

Nowadays, there are special tests (analyzes) that determine the presence of HIV in a person's blood.

And if something bothers you, it is better to get tested for AIDS in a timely manner and gain confidence and peace.

The girl heard about AIDS and HIV at school. Having learned that people may not even be aware of the existence of a virus in their body, she was very scared and turned to her mother for advice. Mom explained to her that HIV is extremely rare in children. These are mainly those children to whom the virus was inherited. The girl did not have the virus at birth, so she probably does not have it now.

If your parents did not have the virus, it is unlikely that you can have it. Children, as a rule, do not get into situations where HIV can occur. So don't worry in vain.

What happens when HIV or AIDS is discovered?

It is very difficult to predict exactly what will happen to a person who is diagnosed with HIV, because the virus affects everyone in different ways, having HIV in your body and having AIDS are not the same thing. Many people living with HIV live normal lives for many years. However, over time, they may develop one or more serious illnesses. In this case, doctors call it AIDS. There are a number of diseases that mean that a person has AIDS. However, it has not yet been established whether HIV always leads to the development of AIDS or not.

Tina is seriously ill. Doctors diagnosed her with AIDS. For almost five years she had HIV, and then her condition deteriorated sharply: her appetite disappeared, she began to lose weight. Then she recovered and felt good for a while. But suddenly her temperature began to rise again, and almost every night she woke up in sweat. Shortly thereafter, she developed pneumonia. This type of pneumonia is included in the list of diseases-signs of AIDS, so the attending physician determined that she developed AIDS. Usually, young people recover fairly quickly from pneumonia. Tina, due to disorders in the immune system, is very difficult to tolerate pneumonia and may even die.

How can we help sick people?

AIDS Counseling Centers are now open in many cities. All, without exception, both HIV-infected and healthy people can get information here. In such centers there are groups of support and mutual help. They include people who are united by a common problem: almost all of them have HIV and AIDS. Communication with people in a similar situation is very important. Group members provide each other with psychological support and friendly help. They, like no one else, perfectly understand what each of them feels and experiences.

Special hospitals - hospices - are being opened for those seriously ill with AIDS. The people who work in them have special training in the care of patients with AIDS. Patients admitted to such hospitals are usually in a very serious condition. Many of them are already doomed, and the hospital staff is trying to do everything possible to brighten up their last days.

Photos and tables - see the appendix.

9. Cholera

Cholera. (tropical disease).

It is spicy intestinal infectioncaused by cholera vibrio, characterized by damage to the enzyme systems of the intestinal epithelium. The causative agent is Vibrio cholerae.

Sources of the disease are sick people and vibrio carriers. Part of cholera vibrios, getting into the human body with water and food, dies in the acidic environment of the gastrointestinal tract. The other part enters the lumen of the small intestine, where the alkaline reaction medium and the high content of protein breakdown products contribute to their intensive reproduction. This process is accompanied by the release of a large amount of toxic substances that penetrate into the epithelial cell. Acute extracellular isotonic degradation develops, a violation of tissue metabolism occurs. Dehydration of the body develops. Patients can lose more than 1 liter of fluid in one hour. There is a thickening of blood, slowing blood flow, impaired peripheral circulation, tissue hypoxia; the accumulation of under-oxidized metabolic products leads to the development of hypokalemia, impaired cardiac activity, the function of the brain and other organs, and blood clotting processes.

The susceptibility to cholera is high. The most susceptible to the disease are persons with low acidity of gastric juice, suffering from gastritis, some forms of anemia and helminthic diseases.

Among tropical diseases, there are helminthic diseases inherent only in this region: schistosomiasis, Wuchereriosis, some types of malaria and (oval).

In our time, there is also mental illness. For example, schizophrenia.

10 schizophrenia

What is schizophrenia? What place does the problem of schizophrenia take in our everyday life? Is it just a medical problem, or more a social problem? Discussion of this and a host of other questions will help us understand whether we should be afraid of schizophrenia, to avoid people suffering from this mental illness. How to treat and behave when facing them face to face?

Let's start with the main question: is schizophrenia a disease or a way of perceiving reality from another, alien point of view? Don't be surprised, this question is actually valid. Ideas have been repeatedly expressed that nature is thus “looking for” new ways of development, “creating” paradoxical moves.

It can be assumed that the first monkey, who decided to knock a coconut from a palm tree with a stone, was somewhat different from other brothers. Although this approach is undoubtedly very controversial and has not yet been confirmed, we are still talking about it in order to warn against the incorrect, avoiding, contemptuous attitude of relatives, friends and society as a whole towards people suffering from schizophrenia.

To save them from knowingly treating them as second-class people. Perhaps they are special creatures of nature, in some way chosen, exceptionally talented, and in some way disadvantaged and suffering from this.

Is schizophrenia a disease?

Yes, it is, since a disease is a kind of deviation from a statistically determined norm. Just like a decrease in the content of hemoglobin in the blood, that is, its change is called anemia and is a disease. Our mental functions have certain parameters that can be measured in various ways (from psychological, neuropsychological, biochemical and others, up to electrometric). In addition, it is, of course, a disease, because it is suffering, sometimes excruciating, and people are looking for help.

We rightfully call schizophrenia a disease, but only from a clinical, medical point of view. In the social sense, it would be incorrect to call a person suffering from this disease sick, that is, inferior. Although this disease is chronic, the forms of schizophrenia are extremely diverse and often a person who is currently in remission, that is, outside of an attack (psychosis), may be fully capable, and even more professionally productive than his average opponents.

In order for all of the above to be more reasoned, it is necessary to talk about the essence of this disease. To begin with, a few words about the very term "schizophrenia". The word originated from the Greek "schizo" ("schizo") - I split and "frene" - mind. Splitting does not mean splitting (for example, personalities), as is often not entirely understood, but disorganization, lack of harmony, inconsistency, illogicality from the point of view of ordinary people.

For example, a very difficult person in everyday life, with difficult relationships within the family, cold and completely indifferent to his loved ones, turns out to be unusually sensitive and touching with his beloved cacti. He can watch them for hours and cry completely sincerely and inconsolably when one of his plants dries up. Of course, from the outside it looks completely inadequate, but for him there is his own logic of relationships, which a person can justify. He's just sure that all people are deceitful, and no one can be trusted. He feels his dissimilarity from others, and their inability to understand him. He knows that he is much smarter than those around him because he feels and sees what, for some reason, others do not see. So why waste time and energy on meaningless, primitive communication when there is such a miracle as cacti. They are magical, it seems that they have something inside them ... After all, plants can communicate with him, and then, for him personally, harmony is achieved.

There are two types of schizophrenia - continuous (chronic delirium, chronic hallucinosis) and paroxysmal (the course of manifestation of psychosis is observed in the form of separate episodes, between which there are "bright" intervals of relatively good mental state (remission), which are often quite long. the form of the flow is more varied and bright than with a continuous one).

With any of the types of schizophrenia, there are changes in personality, character traits under the influence of the disease.

A person becomes withdrawn, strange, commits ridiculous, illogical, from the point of view of those around him. The sphere of interests is changing, hobbies that were completely unusual before appear. Sometimes these are dubious philosophical or religious teachings, or a withdrawal into traditional religion, but to an excessive degree, on the verge of fanaticism. Ideas of physical and spiritual self-improvement, healing according to some special methods, often of their own invention, may arise. In such cases, a person directs all his strength to health-improving activities, tempering, special nutrition, forgetting about the obvious ordinary things, such as washing, cleaning, helping loved ones, and so on. Conversely, a complete loss of activity and interests, passivity and indifference may occur.

The types of schizophrenia also differ in the prevalence of the main appearances: delusions, hallucinations, or personality changes. If delusional dominates, this species is called paranoid. In the case of a combination of delusions and hallucinations, they speak of a hallucinatory-paranoid variant. If personality changes come to the fore, then such conditions are called a simple variant of schizophrenia (there are other varieties).

The biochemical era of schizophrenia began in 1952. This is the year of the discovery of antipsychotics. In 1952. the school of the hospital of St. Anne in Paris publishes a number of interesting reports on the use of the drug Largactila, and in 1955 an international symposium dedicated to Largactila is held. In the same year, scientists Delay and Deniker proposed to the Academy of Medicine to introduce the term "neuroleptics", literally - which traps a nerve, to refer to a new family of drugs.

The mechanism of action of antipsychotics allows you to reduce the hallucinatory-delusional positive. But these drugs have many side effects.

The next era in psychiatry can undoubtedly be called the discovery in the 80s of the last century and the introduction into clinical practice in the mid-90s of new, or atypical antipsychotics, which can significantly alleviate both positive and negative symptoms of the disease. Due to their selective action, they have an effect on a wider range of symptoms and are much better tolerated, which significantly improves the quality of life of the mentally ill. Thanks to these properties, they began to be prescribed worldwide as the drugs of choice for the treatment of schizophrenia.

11. Diseases that appeared in our century.

Atypical pneumonia.

At the beginning of 2003. The whole world watched with intense attention the rapid spread of a new unknown disease. The danger of a new infection was beyond doubt, since many of the sick died, despite the best efforts of the doctors. And among the attending physicians there were cases of fatal illness. In the press, this disease began to be called "SARS". SARS is the same as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), or SARS.

The disease spread quickly throughout the world, and no medication helped. This made many journalists and medical professionals talk about the appearance of the most dangerous disease since the discovery of the AIDS virus.

The SARS epidemic is believed to have started in Guangdong province in China on the border with Hong Kong: 11 February 2003 There was an outbreak of unusually acute influenza, similar in manifestations and consequences to severe bilateral pneumonia. 5 patients died. KK February 20 in China, the number of deaths from acute flu reached 21 people. On March 11, Professor N.V. Kaverin, head of the laboratory of the Institute of Virology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, said that in February a patient died in Hong Kong who had been isolated from the H5N1 influenza virus. This is the same “Chicken Flu” with a high mortality rate that people got sick here in 1997, but then they were infected from chickens, and now it looked like the infection came from a person.

The experts did not know anything about the causative agent of the disease, except that it spreads very quickly and is transmitted by airborne droplets. SARS has spread beyond China - cases have been reported in Vietnam and Singapore.

Every day, the spread of the disease expanded: on March 15, the first cases of SARS were announced in Europe (Germany) and North America (Canada), on March 17 in Israel, on March 18 in France.

On March 16, the WHO published a statement on the final establishment of the nature of the causative agent of SARS. The painstaking work of employees of 13 laboratories in 10 countries of the world, genetic testing showed that the disease is caused by one of the representatives of the coronavirus groups. However, this virus has never been observed anywhere in the human population, which confirmed the information that the SARS virus came to humans from domestic and wild cats... It is in the southern provinces of China, from where the infection began to spread, that cats are eaten. On the same day, a WHO representative at a convention of SARS researchers in Geneva announced that the disease is common to humans and animals. This is confirmed by experiments on monkeys: the introduction of the virus to them causes a disease with the same symptoms as in humans.

On April 24, the first patient with atypical pneumonia was registered in Bulgaria. On the same day, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision Service of Russia for the first time distributed a memo to the population, which provides the necessary information about SARS.

On May 8, the Russian Ministry of Health announced the first case of SARS: in Blagoveshchensk, a 25-year-old man who lived in a Chinese dormitory had two out of five indicators of SARS, but for a whole month there were disputes whether he had typical pneumonia or atypical pneumonia.

May 9 - 500th death from SARS was recorded in the world. The number of cases exceeded 7 thousand people.

The memo of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of Russia provides basic information about SARS. Juolezny has an acute onset - temperature above 38 degrees, headache, sore throat, dry cough. The patient experiences general malaise, muscle pain, chills. Sometimes there is diarrhea, nausea, one-two-time vomiting. This is followed by a short-term improvement with a possible normalization of body temperature. If the disease progresses, then the body temperature rises again, weakness increases, the patient develops a feeling of lack of air. Breathing becomes difficult, quickened. Patients feel anxiety, complain of chest tightness, palpitations. During this period, the disease mainly affects the lungs, pneumonia develops. The incubation period is 3-10 days. The infection is transmitted by airborne droplets, usually through close contact. There is no effective cure for the disease yet. A vaccine has not been developed. Prevention is the same as for other infectious respiratory diseases: regular airing and wet cleaning, adherence to personal hygiene rules, hardening, the use of fortifying agents and vitamins.

There are different hypotheses about the onset of the disease:

1) SARS may be a new type of biological weapon developed by intelligence agencies.

2. The traditional interest in the use of foods unusual for Europeans and the associated health hazards. In the cuisine of China and other Asian countries, cats, dogs, monkeys and other animals are used as food. The virus most likely came to humans from domestic and wild cats.

3. Interest in the possibility of the appearance in nature of new deadly viruses, like HIV, that can lead to the death of mankind. The SARS virus could have appeared as a result of a natural mutation of viruses circulating in populations of domestic and wild animals.

4. Artificial hype around pseudo-influenza in order to obtain additional funding for medical and pharmaceutical corporations.

Characteristics of avian influenza in birds Clinical manifestations and immunity in birds Despite the high lethality of the H5N1 influenza virus, most domestic chickens in Hong Kong showed no clinical signs of illness. At the same time, the H9N2 influenza virus was circulating in the chicken population. When studying the role of the H9N2 virus in protecting chickens from the lethal H5N1 virus infection, it was found that serum from chickens infected with the H9N2 virus does not cross-react with the H5N1 virus in the neutralization reaction and the hemagglutination inhibition reaction. Most chickens infected with the H9N2 influenza virus 3-70 days prior to the H5N1 challenge survived the challenge, but the infected birds shed the H5N1 influenza virus in their stool. The adaptive transfer of T lymphocytes or CD81 T cells from inbred chickens (B2 / B2) infected with the H9N2 influenza virus to native inbred chickens (B2 / B2) protected them from the lethal H5N1 virus. In vitro cytotoxicity assays showed that T lymphocytes or CD81 T cells from chickens infected with H9N2 influenza virus recognize target cells infected with both H5N1 and H9N2 avian influenza viruses in a dose dependent manner. This shows that H9N2 influenza virus-induced cross-cell immunity protected chicken against the lethal H5N1 infection in Hong Kong in 1997, but did not prevent fecal excretion of the virus. In addition, it provides evidence that cross-cell immunity can alter the outcome of avian influenza infection in poultry and create a persistence of the H5N1 avian influenza virus. Comparisons were made between different vaccines. Three vaccines - an inactivated whole virus vaccine, an avian virus haemagglutinin vaccine derived from baculovirus, and a recombinant avian influenza haemagglutinin vaccine - have been tested for their ability to protect chickens against the highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza virus. Vaccines and control viruses (or their protein components) were obtained from field strains of avian influenza virus of various origins and included strains obtained from 4 continents, 6 host species and over a 38-year period. The vaccines protected against the manifestation of clinical symptoms and reduced the amount of virus excreted by birds and the titer of the virus released after the administration of hemagglutinin of the control avian influenza virus H5. Immunization with these vaccines should reduce the spread of avian influenza virus through respiratory and digestive tract and reduce poultry-to-poultry transmission. Although the most significant reduction in viral shedding through the respiratory tract was achieved when the vaccine was most similar to the control virus, the genetic drift of the avian influenza virus should not interfere with the underlying defenses, as in the case of human influenza. Infection in poultry may be subtle or cause respiratory illness, decreased egg production, or a rapidly fatal systemic illness known as highly pathogenic avian influenza. Neutralizing antibodies to the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins provide primary protection against disease. Various vaccines cause the production of neutralizing antibodies, including killed whole virion vaccines and recombinant vaccines based on the vaccine virus. It appears that antigenic virus drift in the case of avian influenza plays a lesser role in unsuccessful vaccination compared to human influenza. The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response may decrease virus shedding in the environment in the case of low pathogenic avian influenza, but provides controversial protection against highly pathogenic avian influenza. The influenza virus can directly affect the immune response of infected birds, but the role of the MX gene, interferons, and other cytokines in protection against avian influenza remains unknown. Characteristics of avian influenza in humans Epidemiology of the disease (reservoir, transmission mechanism, susceptibility and immunity, features of the epidemiological process) In May 1997. A 3-year-old boy in Hong Kong suffered from fever, sore throat and cough. His illness lasted for about 2 weeks and he died of pneumonia. Influenza A virus was isolated from the tracheal fluid, but it could not be typed with standard reagents. This made me think about a new strain. In August, 3 laboratories independently identified the virus as a strain of influenza A (H5N1) new to humans. Before the disease, the boy had contact with infected chickens. Thus, this was the first documented human case of H5N1 avian influenza A virus infection. Prior to this incident, the avian influenza virus was thought to only affect birds. Then infection with the same virus was confirmed in 17 other patients aged 2 to 60 years. By January 1998, 6 people had died from the disease. There is no direct evidence of human-to-human transmission of the virus: all infected people (even those living together in the same room) had contact with infected birds. There are no vaccines available for this strain, and efforts are underway to find a vaccine candidate strain for the development and production of a commercial vaccine. The main distinguishing features of the 2004 sample virus can be summarized as follows: · The virus has become more virulent, indicating a mutation of the virus. · The virus has overcome the interspecies barrier from birds to humans, but there is no evidence yet that the virus is transmitted directly from person to person (all sick people had direct contact with infected birds). · The virus mainly infects and kills children. · The source of infection and the path of the virus spread have not been determined, which makes the situation with the spread of the virus practically uncontrollable. · Measures to prevent spread - complete elimination of all poultry. The outbreak of avian influenza in Hong Kong highlighted the role of poultry as a source of human infection with particular clarity. In May 2001, influenza A virus subtype H5N1 was isolated from duck meat imported to North Korea from China. Although this isolate was not as pathogenic as that isolated in 1997, the very fact that the highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus was isolated from poultry suggests that the virus continues to circulate in China and may pose a risk of transmission from birds to humans. Permanent circulation of the avian influenza virus types H5N1 and H9N2, which crossed the bird-to-human species barrier in 1997 and 1999, could potentially cause a human pandemic. However, although the avian influenza virus has some of the characteristics of a pandemic virus, it does not have the ability to spread rapidly among the human population, which is a prerequisite for a pandemic. The avian virus is difficult to stop as the virus appears to have mutated since the last outbreak in Hong Kong in 1997 and 2003. Migratory birds can spread it, which confirms the fact that a dead peregrine falcon carrying the virus was found in Hong Kong. In contrast to the 1997 and 2003 viruses, the 2004 H5N1 virus became more virulent, as evidenced by the unusually high number of poultry deaths. This increases the risk of people getting sick. Attention should also be paid to the increasing danger of chilled and frozen poultry meat, since the H5N1 virus can persist for many years at temperatures below -70 0 C. However, it is destroyed when quality meat is cooked. The localization of avian influenza outbreaks depends on the accuracy of identifying how the virus spreads. Unusually, it is primarily spread by migratory birds. It is known from previous experience that people and equipment are responsible for the spread of avian influenza between farms. In 1997, an outbreak in Hong Kong was contained by the destruction of all poultry in the country. The virus has now spread to poultry throughout Asia, making it much more difficult to contain the outbreak. Compared to previous outbreaks, the 2004 avian flu epidemic could affect many more farms. At the same time, transmission of the virus through Asia is possible, since the factors causing the spread of the virus are not controlled. WHO notes that the near-simultaneous outbreaks of avian influenza in Japan, North Korea, Vietnam, and now Thailand and Cambodia are historically unprecedented, and there is concern that this new, virulent strain of avian influenza virus could infect the world. The rate of evolution of the avian influenza virus in natural hosts (waterfowl, plovers and gulls) and aberrant hosts (chickens, turkeys, piglets, horses and humans) differs. The evolutionary rate determined for all three outbreaks was similar to that observed in mammals, providing strong evidence for the adaptation of the avian influenza virus to new host species. So far, avian influenza does not appear to be transmitted from person to person, but due to the epidemic in poultry, such transmission is becoming more and more likely. All that is needed is correct recombination between the H5N1 strain and the coexisting human influenza strain. This could happen if any of humans or other animals contract human and avian influenza at the same time, which will allow viruses to exchange genes and form a new strain that can be easily transmitted from person to person. There is still no evidence that this happened, since in all known cases of the disease, infection occurred through direct contact with chickens. This situation is dangerous in that if a pandemic occurs, it will be more tragic in consequences than the 1968 pandemic. Avian influenza mainly affects children, according to Reuters as of 26.01.2004. 6 out of 7 victims of bird flu are children. Why this happens is unknown. Clinical manifestations, pathogenesis Human symptoms of avian influenza range from typical flu-like symptoms (fever, cough, sore throat and muscle soreness) to eye infections, pneumonia, acute respiratory illness, viral pneumonia, and other severe, life-threatening symptoms. The pathogenesis of the avian influenza virus has been studied in mice, since it is one of the most widely used and studied models for studying the pathogenesis of viruses in mammals, but it is proposed as an alternative to study the avian influenza virus in ferrets, for which it is also pathogenic. A pathogenicity study of avian and human H5N1 virus isolates from Hong Kong in 6-8 week old BALB / c mice showed that both avian and human isolates caused a disease in mice characterized by hypothermia, clinical symptoms, rapid weight loss and 75-100% mortality in mice. 6-8 days after infection. Three isolates from non-Hong Kong gave no clinical manifestations... One isolate A / tk / England / 91 (H5N1) caused disease moderate and all but one of the animals recovered. The infection resulted in mild to severe damage to both the upper and lower respiratory tract. Most often, the virus caused necrosis in the respiratory epithelium of the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles with concomitant inflammation. The most severe and widespread lesions were seen in the lungs of HKVA-infected mice, while those infected with A / ck / Scotland / 59 (H5N1) and A / ck / Queretaro / 95 (H5N2) viruses were weak. or were not observed at all. Viruses A / ck / Italy / 97 (H5N2) and A / tk / England / 91 (H5N1) showed intermediate pathogenicity, producing weak to moderate respiratory tract lesions. In addition, the infection caused by various isolates of the virus could be further determined by the immune response of the mice. Isolates of non-Hong Kong origin after infection caused the production of elevated levels active transforming growth factor b, while Hong Kong isolates did not. When mice are infected with a human isolate of the influenza A H5N1 virus, two groups are distinguished, differing in virulence. Using modern methods genetics, it was shown that a mutation at position 627 in the PB2 protein affects the outcome of infection in mice. Moreover, the high degradability of hemagglutin is a necessary condition for the lethality of the infection. Earlier studies also indicated the presence of two groups of viruses: group 1, for which the MLD50 was between 0.3 and 11 PFU, and group 2, for which the MLD 50 was more than 10 3 PFU. One day after intranasal inoculation of mice with 100 PFU of the virus of group 1, the titer of the virus in the lungs was 10 7 PFU / g or 3 log more than for viruses of the second group. Both types of viruses replicated to high titers (\u003e 106 PFU / g) in the lungs on day 3 and remained at this level for 6 days. More importantly, only viruses of the first group caused a systemic infection and replicated in non-respiratory organs, including the brain. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the replication of viruses of the first group occurred in brain neurons, glial cells, and cardiac myofibers. The virulence mechanism responsible for lethality of influenza viruses in birds is also at work in mammalian hosts. The fact that some H5N1 viruses have not produced systemic infection in models suggests that multiple factors that have yet to be elucidated contribute to the severity of H5N1 infection in mammals. In addition, the ability of these viruses to produce systemic infection in mice and the distinct differences in pathogenicity among isolates indicate that this system is a useful model for studying the pathogenesis of avian influenza virus in mammals. In addition, it has been shown that one of the factors influencing the pathogenesis of the H5N1 virus is a destructive effect on the immune system, which differs in lethal and non-lethal isolates of the H5N1 virus. A number of works are devoted to biochemical aspects that affect virulence, adaptation of the virus to a new host, immune response and pathogenesis. In the immediate aftermath of the 1997-1999 outbreaks, the search for a vaccine against the avian influenza virus began. Since the unadapted H5N1 virus is pathogenic for mice, these animals were used as a model of the mammalian immune system to study a lethal infection with avian influenza. The production of a vaccine against the H5N1 influenza virus in the chicken embryo system is impossible due to the death of chicken embryos due to infection with this virus and the high level of biosafety required to work with this virus and the production of a vaccine based on this virus. The avirulent H5N4 virus isolated from migratory ducks, the H5N1 virus, and the avirulent recombinant H5N1 virus were used to develop a vaccine based on the whole virus. All vaccines were inactivated with formalin. Intraperitoneal immunization of mice with each vaccine elicited hemagglutinin-inhibiting and virus-neutralizing antibodies, while intranasal vaccination without adjuvant induced both mucosal and systemic antibody responses that protected mice from challenge with the lethal H5N virus. Intramuscular administration of a vaccine based on the non-pathogenic strain A / Duck / Singapore-Q / F119-3 / 97 (H5N3) antigenically associated with the human H5N1 virus, in combination with or without alum, resulted in complete protection against lethal virus challenge H5N1. Protection against infection was observed in 70% of animals that received the vaccine by itself and in 100% of animals that received the vaccine in combination with alum. The protective effect of vaccination correlated with the level of virus-specific serum antibodies. These results suggest that in the event of a pandemic, it is possible to use antigenically related, but not pathogenic, influenza viruses as vaccine candidates. DNA vaccine studies have shown that a DNA vaccine encoding hemagglutinin from A / Ty / Ir / 1/83 (H5N8), which differs from A / HK / 156/97 (H5N1) by up to 12% in HA1, prevents the death of mice, but not disease with H5N1 infection. Therefore, a DNA vaccine based on the heterologous H5 strain does not protect mice from infection with the H5N1 avian influenza virus, but is useful in protecting mice from death. Influenza vaccines that induce significant heterosubtype cross-over immunity can overcome the limitations of vaccine efficacy caused by the antigenic variability of influenza A. viral titers in the nasal cavity and lungs were at least 2500 times lower than in control mice treated with LT (R192G) alone. In contrast, mice vaccinated with H3N2 vaccine three times subcutaneously in the presence or absence of LT (R192G) or Freund's incomplete adjuvant were not protected in the lethal challenge and no noticeable decrease in tissue titers was observed 5 days after challenge with H5N1 virus. Vaccination without LT (R192G) resulted in only partial protection against heterosubtype challenge. The results of a heterosubtype immunity study have confirmed the usefulness of mucosal vaccination, which stimulates cross-protection against a variety of viral subtypes, including viruses that pose a potential pandemic hazard. Development of detection and diagnostic tools During the 1997 outbreak, the hemagglutination inhibition assay, standard for serological determination of influenza infection in humans, showed low sensitivity in detecting antibodies to avian influenza virus. In this regard, a more sensitive method of microneutralization and H5 specific indirect ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) were proposed to determine antibodies to the avian influenza virus in humans. The sensitivity and specificity of these methods were comparable and, moreover, significantly increased when combined with a Western blot. The maximum sensitivity (80%) and specificity (96%) in the determination of anti H5 antibodies in adults aged 18 to 59 years was achieved using microneutralization in combination with a Western blot, and the maximum sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) with determination of anti H5 antibodies in the serum of children under 15 years of age was achieved using ELISA in combination with Western blotting. This algorithm can be used in sero-epidemiological studies of H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks. It has also been shown that highly pathogenic neurotropic variants of the H5N1 avian influenza virus can be rapidly isolated in mice. In addition, as early as 1995, RT-PCR (polymerase chain reaction) was used to quickly sequence the hemagglutinin cleavage site, a marker of the virulence potential of avian influenza viruses. This technique, combined with the sequencing of the hemagglutinin cleavage site, can serve as a fast and sensitive method for assessing the potential virulence of avian influenza viruses. Early detection of virulence-related sequences at the hemagglutinin cleavage site in field isolates of the virus will help better control influenza in a large population of poultry. Subsequently, a simple molecular rapid genotyping method was developed to monitor the internal genes of the circulating influenza A virus. The virus subtyping strategy was blindly tested on 10 control viruses of each subtype H1N1, H3N2 and H5N1 (30 in total) and was found to be highly effective. A standardized genotyping method was used to identify the source of the internal genes of 51 influenza A viruses isolated from humans in Hong Kong during and immediately after outbreaks of 1997-1998. The same technique was used to characterize the internal genes of two H9N2 avian influenza virus isolates obtained in Hong Kong in 1999. More recently, a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (RRT-PCR) assay was developed for the rapid detection of influenza A virus and the H5 and H7 subtypes of influenza A. This assay uses a one-step detection method and fluorescent probes. The detection limit is about 1000 copies of the RNA target. Using this method, it is possible to determine 0.1 to 50% infectious dose for chick embryos. For the analysis of subtypes of influenza A virus, the limit of detection is 10 3 -10 4 copies of the target-RNA. The sensitivity and specificity of this method was directly compared with standard methods for determining the influenza virus: the isolation of influenza in chicken embryos and the subtyping of hemagglutinin in the hemagglutination inhibition reaction. Comparisons were made on 1,550 tracheal and cloacal swabs from various bird species and environmental swabs from live bird markets in New York and New Jersey. The RRT-PCR results correlated with the results of flu isolating in chick embryos in 89% of the samples. The rest of the samples were positive when determined by only one of the methods. In general, the sensitivity and specificity of the H7- and H5-specific assays were similar to the method of virus isolation in chicken embryos and the hemagglutination inhibition reaction. Treatment of the disease Research conducted so far confirms that prescribing drugs developed for human influenza strains will also work in the case of avian influenza infection in humans, but it is possible that influenza strains may become resistant to such drugs and these drugs become ineffective. The isolated virus was found to be sensitive to amantadine and rimantadine, which inhibit the reproduction of influenza A virus and are used in the therapy of human influenza. In addition, a number of other drugs have been investigated. The neuraminidase inhibitor zanzivir inhibited viral replication on hamster kidney cells in a viral harvest assay (50% effective concentration, 8.5-14.0 mM) and inhibited viral neuraminidase activity (50% inhibitory concentration 5-10 nM). Intranasal administration of zanzivir twice daily (50 and 100 mg / kg body weight) completely protected the mice from death. At a dose of 10 mg / kg body weight, zanzivir completely protected mice from infection with the H9N2 virus and increased the lifespan and the number of surviving mice infected with H6N1 and H5N1 viruses. At all doses tested, zanzivir significantly reduced viral titers in the lungs and completely blocked the spread of the virus to the brain. Thus, zanzivir is effective in the treatment of avian influenza, which can be transmitted to mammals. The orally administered neuraminidase inhibitor RWJ-270201 was tested in parallel with zanamivir and oseltamivir in a panel of avian influenza viruses for inhibition of neuraminidase activity and replication in tissue cultures. These agents were then tested to protect mice against lethal H5N1 and H9N2 infections. In vitro, RWJ-270201 was most effective against all nine neuraminidase subtypes. RWJ-270201 (50% inhibition concentration from 0.9 to 4.3 nM) outperformed zanamivir and oseltamivir carboxylate in neuraminidase inhibition. RWJ-270201 inhibited the replication of the avian influenza virus of both the Eurasian and American lines on MDCK cells (50% efficiency concentration, 0.5 to 11.8 mM). Mice given 10 mg per kg of body weight RWJ-270201 daily were fully protected against challenge with a lethal dose of A / Hong Kong / 156/97 (H5N1) and A / quail / Hong Kong / G1 / 97 (H9N2) viruses. Both RWJ-270201 and oseltamivir significantly reduced viral titers in the lungs of mice at daily doses of 1.0 to 10 mg / kg and protected the spread of the virus to the brain. When treatment was started 48 hours after exposure to the H5N1 virus, 10 mg RWJ-270201 / kg body weight daily protected 50% of the mice from death. These results confirmed that RWJ-270201 is at least as effective against avian influenza virus as zanamivir or oseltamivir, and has the potential to be clinically used to treat avian influenza when transmitted from avian to humans. Potential hazard flu pandemics All influenza viruses have the potential to change. There is a possibility that the avian influenza virus could change in such a way that it can infect humans and spread easily from person to person. Since these viruses do not usually infect humans, there is very little or no immune defense against such viruses in the human population. If the avian influenza virus becomes capable of infecting humans and acquires the ability to spread easily from person to person, an influenza pandemic could begin. This fact is confirmed by American and British scientists in their report on February 5, 2004: the results of their studies indicate that the Spanish flu was so deadly due to the fact that it evolved from bird flu and contained a unique protein that humans did not have immunity. This is also evidenced by the data on the degree of divergence of hemagglutinin antigenic sites during the antigenic drift of the virus between 1918 and 1934, confirming the hypothesis that the human influenza virus that caused the 1918 pandemic originated from the avian influenza virus subtype H1, which overcame the species barrier from birds to humans and adapted to humans, presumably by mutation and / or reassortment shortly before 1918. Typically, influenza A viruses have a well-defined host range, but the host range limitation is polygenic in nature and not absolute. Sometimes interspecies transmission of the virus occurs both in natural conditions and during adaptation to a new host in laboratory conditions. Influenza viruses are characterized by constant antigenic variability. Two types of variability - drift and shift - change both surface antigens of the influenza A virus. Antigenic drift leads to small changes in the structure of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, while during antigenic shift, the changes in these protein molecules caused by reassortment of genomic segments are very significant. A number of genetic and serological evidence suggests that human influenza pandemics may result from gene reassortment between human and avian viruses. This means that when 2 viruses infect the same cells, the viral offspring can inherit sets of genomic RNA segments, which are recombinations of RNA segments of both parental viruses. The theoretically possible number of such combinations that can form a complete RNA genome in a competitive infection is 2256. However, only a few reassortant viruses possess the correct combination of genes necessary for efficient reproduction in nature. Genetic and biological research confirms that pigs can become a kind of "mixing vessel" for the formation of a new influenza virus reassortant, similar to the pandemic viruses of 1957 and 1968. Currently, the emergence of a pandemic influenza virus is possible through the transfer of genes from the reservoir of waterfowl to humans through reassortment in pigs, a hypothetical "mixing vessel". Understanding the 1997 H5N1 flu outbreak in Hong Kong and the human isolation of the H9N2 avian influenza virus increase the alternative opportunities for a new pandemic virus to emerge. The H9N2 viruses found in amphibian poultry in southern China have moved back to waterfowl domestic ducks, in which the viruses generate multiple reassortants. These new H9N2 viruses are double or even triple reassortants with the potential to directly infect humans. Some of them contain gene segments that are completely related to those of A / Hong Kong / 156/97 (H5N1 / 97, H5N1) or A / Quail / Hong Kong / G1 / 97 (G1-like, H9N2). More importantly, some of these internal genes are entirely linked to those of the new H5N1 virus isolated during the 2001 Hong Kong outbreak. A two-way transmission of the influenza virus between terrestrial and aquatic birds has been discovered, which facilitates the generation of new H9N2 influenza virus reassortants. Such reassortants could play a direct role in the emergence of the next pandemic virus. The H5N1 and H9N2 viruses share similar characteristics, which increases the likelihood of a new pathogen emerging in humans. The genes encoding H5N1 circulate in mainland China, which preserves the possibility of viral reassortment. The H5N1 virus circulating in live bird markets spans two different phylogenetic lineages in all genes, which evolve very rapidly. Following WHO guidance, the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports has developed a national plan to minimize the impact of an influenza pandemic. As part of the pandemic preparedness plan, the significance of the problem was assessed based on the number of hospitalizations and deaths during an influenza pandemic. Using scenario analysis, the potential effect of a possible intervention was also investigated. Development scenarios are described and compared to understand the potential impact of a pandemic (morbidity, hospitalization and death), different types of intervention and critical parameters of the model. Scenario analysis is a useful tool for making policy decisions related to the design and planning of epidemic control and management at national, regional and local levels. Influenza pandemics in the human population An influenza pandemic is a global outbreak of influenza and occurs when a new influenza virus emerges, spreads and causes disease around the world. Recent influenza pandemics have resulted in high levels of morbidity, mortality, social instability and economic loss. In the twentieth century, there were three pandemics and 1 global epidemic close to a pandemic (1977). The causative agents of pandemics spread throughout the world within about one year after they were discovered. It: 1918-1919 - Spanish flu, Spanish flu. Caused the greatest number of deaths, more than 500,000 people died in the United States and 20 to 50 million people died worldwide. Many people died during the first few days after the illness, and many from complications from the flu. About half of those killed were young, healthy adults. 1957-1958 - Asian flu. Has caused about 70,000 deaths in the United States. First reported in China in late February 1957, Asian influenza reached the United States in June 1957. 1968-1969 - Hong Kong flu. Has caused about 34,000 deaths in the United States. It was first registered in Hong Kong in early 1968 and reached the United States at the end of the same year. The influenza A (H3N2) virus is still circulating. The influenza virus was first isolated in 1933. Interestingly, each new virus (Asian, Hong Kong) first appeared in China, and it is believed that the viruses that caused the epidemics that occurred before 1933 also originated in China. These pandemic viruses had several characteristics in common. The first outbreaks of pandemics caused by these viruses occurred in Southeast Asia. The emergence of the Н2N2 and Н3N2 viruses was accompanied by the disappearance from the human population of the viruses that circulated before them (respectively, the viruses of the Н1N1 and Н2N2 subtypes). Why viruses that previously circulated in the human population disappeared with the emergence of new viruses remains unclear. The antigenic specificity of the pandemic viruses responsible for the Asian and Hong Kong influenza differed from the influenza viruses that circulated in humans prior to their appearance. The agent of the "Russian flu" epidemic in 1977 (subtype H1N1) was basically identical to the viruses circulating among humans in 1950. the highest degree it is doubtful that this virus persisted in nature for more than 20 years without any changes. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that the virus was stored frozen until it was somehow introduced into the human population. Usually, once it appears and spreads, the influenza virus will settle among humans and circulate for many years. The US Centers for Disease Control and WHO have extensive programs to monitor influenza cases around the world, including the emergence of potentially pandemic strains of the influenza virus.

12. Conclusion.

Medical geography is a complex science. Therefore, it is closely related to many related sciences. One of them is ecology.

Distinctive feature high-tech twentieth century is the public interest in environmental problems. The issue of nature protection has acquired particular relevance in the last decades of the last century, when the connection between the growth of morbidity and the state of the environment became obvious. In the early 1970s, a powerful green movement emerged in Western Europe, which has remained active to this day. Young Germans, French, Austrians, Danes have united in the fight against environmental pollution, the harmful consequences of the development of nuclear energy, for the reduction of military budgets and the democratization of public life. By revealing the truth about the threat of environmental disaster, "greens" urge people to reduce the consumption of natural resources, which ultimately can reduce the formation of industrial waste.

Progress has always been associated with increased consumption of material goods. European countries have long passed the stage of reckless accumulation of wealth and are already close to becoming a society with a moderate culture of consumption. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about the developing states, to which Russia belongs. To get closer to the consumption standards of developed countries, it is necessary to increase the use of raw materials and energy. According to scientists, under existing conditions, the planet will not withstand the load, and an ecological disaster will become inevitable. The restructuring of economic policy towards rational use of natural resources in the West began in the 1980s, but it turned out to be much more difficult to change the consumer orientation of society.

In the absence of waste-free industries, developing countries are unable to recycle more than 10% of household and industrial waste. Moreover, even such an insignificant part of waste is destroyed without proper observance of sanitary standards. According to WHO, about a third of the world's population is not provided with minimum sanitary conditions. This refers to cramped dwellings, lack of hot water supply, and often lack of clean drinking water, for example, residents of many regions of the Caucasus, Central and South Asia use the muddy water of mountain rivers for all their needs, being potential sources of large-scale epidemics. Approximately half of the urban population in backward countries is not provided with adequate waste disposal facilities. According to statistics, more than 5 million people on Earth die every year from diseases associated with environmental pollution. The past century has left a legacy of industrial diseases to the new century. For example, Minamata disease is caused by mercury poisoning. Yusho-Yu-Cheng disease, initially noted in the industrial regions of Southeast Asia, is a liver disease with dioxin. In 1976. in one of the cities of Italy, hundreds of people were poisoned with dioxin as a result of violation of the rules for the disposal of chemical waste. In the western part of Kazakhstan, asbestosis is widespread - destruction of lungs by asbestos dust; in the region of Semipalatinsk, phosphorus-manganese intoxication, called Kashin-Beck's disease, is "popular". The tragedy of the century is called the accident at the nuclear station in Chernobyl, which immediately took the lives of thousands of people and continues to kill offspring through irradiated parents and a radioactive ecological system.

Experts warn that the process of restoring the lost natural balance exceeds the capabilities of the available technical means. In their opinion, natural ecosystems are much more complex than human civilization. Even their partial destruction can upset the information flows that govern the normal functioning and sustainable development of the biosphere.

Thus, environmental problems have long gone beyond the framework of medicine, economics and politics, becoming a philosophical phenomenon. The issues of saving the environment are today considered by representatives of various fields of knowledge, in agreement that the victory of the human mind will be the main achievement of the XXI century.

As mentioned above, medicine as a science does not stand still, but moves forward. And I hope that I can take part in the development of vaccines and methods of treatment for the terrible diseases of the new century: AIDS, SARS, Avian influenza. And also in improving the treatment and prevention of already familiar diseases. inherited by humanity from ancient times.

13.List of literature

1.V.P.Maksakovsky "Geography Grade 10"

2.T.V.Kucher, I.F.Kolpashchikova "Medical Geography"

3.E.N. Gritsak "Popular history of medicine"

4.Yu.E. Korneev "Health of the population of Russia in an ecological arrangement

5. E. N. Pavlovsky "Medical geography. XIV Geographic Fee

6. A.F.Treshnikov "Medical geography and health"

7.E.I. Egnatiev "Medical geography and the development of new areas

Siberia and the Far East "

8.F.F. Talyzin "Traveling behind an invisible enemy"

In the second half of the XX century. great success was achieved in the fight against many diseases - plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, poliomyelitis, etc. In the second half of the XX century. great success has been achieved in the fight against many diseases - plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, poliomyelitis, etc.

In the 60s and 70s. The World Health Organization (WHO) has carried out a wide range of medical interventions for smallpox control, reaching more than 50 countries with a population of over 2 billion. As a result, this disease on our planet was virtually eliminated.

Considering this topic, you should keep in mind that when assessing a person's health, one cannot be limited only to his physiological health. This concept also includes moral (spiritual), psychological health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia. Considering this topic, you should keep in mind that when assessing a person's health, one cannot be limited only to his physiological health. This concept also includes moral (spiritual), psychological health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

Ulyanovsk State University

Institute of Further Education

Correspondence Faculty of Law

on ecology

on the topic: “The problem of human health. Ways to solve them "

Completed: 1st year correspondence student

faculty of Law Group 1

Babaev Andrey Anatolievich

supervisor

Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor Shrol Olga Yurievna

The work was completed on "__" __________ 2009.

Admitted to the defense "__" ___________ 2009.

Grade ______________

Ulyanovsk 2010

Introduction …………………………………………………………… .3

1. Health protection. Historical aspect .. ……………………… 4

2. Environmental protection ………. ……………………… ..10

3. The concept of a healthy lifestyle. ………. ………. …… ..14

4. Ecopolis instead of megalopolis ………………. ……. ……… ..17

Conclusion ……………………………………………………… 22

References …………………………………………… ..23

Introduction

The problem of human health in the context of universal human values \u200b\u200bis becoming increasingly important. There is a wide public response to the understanding that among the problems, the solution of which should not depend on socio-political conflicts, the central place is occupied by the problem of children's health, without the solution of which the country has no future.

Have you ever wondered what “health” is? “And why think about it,” another impatient one of you will answer, “when everything is already very clear: if nothing hurts inside, then the person is healthy.” Alas, scientists think differently. In accordance with the latest ideas, health is a synthetic category that includes, in addition to physiological, moral, intellectual and mental components. It turns out that a sick person is not only one who has a chronic illness or physical defects, but also one who is distinguished by moral pathology, a weakened intellect, and an unstable psyche. Such a person is weakened, he is not able to fully fulfill his social functions. From this point of view, almost every second inhabitant of the planet is unwell.

The health problem is very old. Probably, we can say that its character manifested itself even earlier in comparison with other global problems.

1. Health protection. Historical aspect

The issue of health protection and disease prevention at a certain period of life becomes extremely urgent for every person. Throughout human history, mortality from disease has been higher than from all wars, man-made disasters, and natural disasters.

The plague epidemic of 1347–1351, known as the Black Death, which originated from the rodents of Central Asia, was basically an epidemic of pneumonic plague, intensified by the transmission of microbes from person to person through fleas. the epidemic has spread throughout the world. It killed at least 40 million people. It was the worst epidemic in human history. In Europe, 20 million people died (a quarter of the population). Because of the "black death" carried by rats and fleas, the British had to burn to the ground in 1666. On the territory of Mongolia and China 25 million people died, some Chinese provinces died out by 90%. Subsequently, outbreaks of plague were repeated locally until the 19th century, when its causative agent was isolated and ways to combat it were found.

New time has brought new diseases. Cholera, typhoid, influenza, measles and smallpox - in the XIX-XX centuries. in total, billions of people have been ill with these diseases.

The epidemic of the so-called "Spanish flu", which swept across Europe in 1918, is considered the worst in modern human history, when about 50 million people died from the flu. The last few years, a group of scientists from a secret laboratory American Center disease control investigated the causes of this mass epidemic... American scientists found that the 1918 flu virus first appeared in birds, then mutated and became dangerous to humans. As a result of further changes, the virus was able to spread from person to person, which caused a monstrous epidemic.

Today, the plague of the XX century. called HIV infection. It is not so much the scale of the spread of the infection that is surprising as the unpredictable features of its development. Cases of detection of AIDS symptoms in a number of homosexuals date back to the late 70s. In the early 80s. the etiological factor of AIDS was identified, and the disease assumed the proportions characteristic of the onset of the epidemic. The first person with classic AIDS symptoms died in 1959. The symptoms were so illogical for medicine that some of the organs were preserved. This made it possible after 30 years to isolate and study the virus that infected the body, which turned out to be HIV.

In 1989, the results of the analysis of one of the blood samples taken from an African in 1959 and preserved to this day were published. Fragments of HIV were also found in it. Finally, in 1998, after targeted searches, fragments of the HIV genome were isolated from blood samples from 1959, which were then taken from a person now living in Kinshasa. Based on the phylogenetic analysis, it was made: HIV-1 originated from the monkey immunodeficiency virus, which became the source of at least three independent hits in the human population almost simultaneously in the interval between 1940 and 1950. That is, the first AIDS disease was registered and described back in 1959, at the same time, HIV is detected in blood samples of African people. The first patients attract attention only at the end of the 70s, that is, after 20 years. They are beginning to be detected locally, only in one population group, initially AIDS was even called "the disease of homosexuals." Then an explosion followed, and in a little over ten years the number of infected people exceeded 50 million! And this - under very limited conditions of transmission - only by injection, sex and through "dirty" medical instruments. Other diseases (for example, syphilis) are transmitted in the same way, but nothing like this has ever happened.

However, the most alarming thing is that changes in viruses are occurring rapidly, explosive evolution is taking place even at the level of one individual in the process of illness. In the course of an experiment on chimpanzees, it was found that six weeks after the initial infection with the hepatitis C virus, the isolated variants were already not very similar to the variants of the initial pathogen and, moreover, differed in different monkeys. That is, evolution proceeded not only rapidly, but also in a variety of ways. After 1-6 weeks, new options appeared. And, finally, the natural evolution of the virus in one organism led to such changes that reinfection with the primary infecting strain became possible. A similar evolution takes place in humans, it is typical for other viruses. The human immunodeficiency virus, due to a number of its inherent features, mutates a million times more intensively than DNA structures. This means that in one year it can go through the same evolution as some slow-moving (in terms of mutation) virus, such as smallpox or herpes, takes a million years.

The pandemic of infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the largest event in the history of mankind at the end of the 20th century, which can be put on a par with two world wars, both in the number of victims and in the damage it causes to society. AIDS, like a war, has unexpectedly hit humanity and continues to attack, hitting new countries and continents. Unlike military operations, HIV infection in most countries has spread imperceptibly, and the consequences of this secret spread have already been revealed to mankind - the illness and death of millions of people.

The disease itself and its direct and indirect consequences are catastrophic for humanity. By 1995, there were practically no more than a dozen countries left on Earth in which no HIV cases were officially announced. Consequently, the fight against the consequences of the pandemic has become a common task for the world community.

In the history of mankind, there were times when some infections caused more significant consequences, but they learned to fight with them, or at least suppress them with the help of quarantine measures, vaccines and antibiotics.

Although the flu continued to collect annual tribute, malaria held firmly in tropical areas, and cholera even made occasional forays, there was a strong belief that improved means of prevention and treatment would end these enemies in the near future. It was believed that due to general changes in the conditions of life on Earth, thanks to the victories of the so-called civilization, many factors that caused the recurrence of pandemics disappeared.

In the case of HIV infection, mankind felt completely defenseless in the face of an unfamiliar and extremely insidious enemy. For this reason, another epidemic has spread on Earth - the epidemic of fear of AIDS.

I was also shocked that the United States was among the first and most affected by AIDS. The disease has challenged many of the values \u200b\u200bof modern Western civilization: sexual freedom and freedom of movement. AIDS has challenged all modern lifestyles.

To the potential "killers" of civilization in the XXI century. also include Lassa, Rift Valley, Marburg virus, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, and the infamous Ebola virus. Their danger is often exaggerated, but it cannot be underestimated either. Despite all the international conventions banning bacteriological weapons, such diseases can be genetically modified and turned into an absolute instrument of death. Even with all the achievements modern medicine the rapid spread of "improved" viruses in densely populated areas can throw humanity back into the Stone Age and even completely wipe it off the face of the Earth.

Of the 58 million deaths due to all causes, which are predicted by experts from the World Health Organization, 35 million deaths will be due to chronic diseases. This will double the number of deaths in 10 years from all infectious diseases (including HIV, malaria, tuberculosis) combined.

The first four places will be taken by cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes; 80% of deaths from chronic diseases occur in underdeveloped countries, where the bulk of the world's population lives. This category also includes the Russian Federation, which, according to experts, for 2005–2015. will receive less in the national about 300 billion dollars. due to premature mortality from heart attacks, strokes and complications of diabetes. Greater damage - about $ 558 billion. - only the Chinese economy will suffer.

The WHO report emphasizes that the current level of knowledge allows to cope with this problem. However, the global efforts are insufficient. This is especially true of the fight against smoking (4.9 million people die annually from diseases associated with tobacco use) and the obesity epidemic (currently 1 billion people are overweight). In Russia, every third child is born with a congenital illness, the mortality rate of children is much higher than in the West, and the number of disabled people is growing. Over the past 40 years, mankind has received 72 new infections, each with two or three infections that are dangerous to humans. The head of the WHO Department of Infectious Diseases, David Heyman, at the World Health Assembly said that the emergence of new deadly viruses is almost inevitable. Most of all, according to him, doctors fear a new strain of the influenza virus.

Now there is such a concept as emergent viruses, that is, recently discovered. Moreover, the process of discovering new viruses is continuous. At the same time, the diagnosis of diseases is improving, diagnostic tools are being improved. This contributes not only to the discovery of new viruses, but also to a clear establishment of the virus-disease relationship where it has not been previously established. This is the main reason for the apparent increase in viral infections. Although there is another factor - a total decrease in the state of the immune system of the population.

2. Environmental protection

Deterioration of the quality of the environment as a result of powerful anthropogenic impact determines the need for environmental protection measures. Environmental protection is understood as a system of measures aimed at maintaining a rational interaction between human activities and the environment, ensuring the preservation and restoration of natural resources, rational use of natural resources, preventing direct and indirect bad influence the results of society's activities on nature and human health. The problems of environmental protection and the use of natural resources consist of a complex of state, international and public events, the implementation of which is directly dependent on the socio-economic system of various states and their technical capabilities. The main strategic line in the scientific and economic activities of people should be the formula: understand in order to anticipate; foresee in order to use it rationally. The constant deterioration of the quality of the environment poses the following tasks for society in terms of environmental protection:

Regional and global monitoring of ecosystems;

Introduction of environmentally friendly technologies, neutralization and disposal of industrial and household waste;

Organization of rational nature management;

Protection of flora and fauna, preservation of reference ecosystems within specially protected natural areas, etc.

In the Russian Federation, environmental protection is one of the responsibilities of the state. At the same time, environmental management is characterized by the following principles:

1. The principle of legality in state regulation of environmental protection. State and public organizations, officials, the state and its bodies act on the basis of legality. This requirement applies to all citizens. Legality in environmental management has two main sides:

A) exact and strict observance of all regulatory legal acts in environmental protection activities. In the event of a violation of the law by a ministry, department or other body, the Prosecutor's Office of Russia, which exercises supreme supervision over the accurate and uniform execution of laws, is obliged to appeal the illegal decision, and the protest of the prosecutor, carried out in accordance with the law, is subject to execution;

B) making the right decision in the event of a conflict of applicable law. So, if the applicable law of a republic within the Russian Federation or other constituent entities of the Federation contradicts the Federal Law, then the law of the Russian Federation shall apply; if a special law regulates the situation differently than the general one, the special law applies; if the later issued regulates the case differently from the earlier adopted, then the later law applies, etc.

2. The principle of the priority of environmental protection assumes the presence of two sides:

A) in the event of a conflict of interests of economic feasibility and requirements for the protection of ecological systems, the decision should be made based on the interests of the safety of ecological systems. For example, the seizure of lands occupied by specially protected natural objects is not allowed. The procedure for the use of land and other natural resources should be of an environmental, resource-saving nature and provide for limiting the impact on other components of the environment;

B) the use of some natural objects should be carried out not to the detriment of other natural objects and the environment in general.

3. The principle of planned state regulation of environmental protection is as follows:

A) the most important measures for environmental protection are fixed in plans, which, after their approval, become binding. For example, the development of special programs is envisaged for the rational use of lands, their monitoring, increasing soil fertility, protecting land resources;

B) the results of the implementation of the developed plans and programs must be constantly monitored. So, at the federal level, it is envisaged to organize control over the use and protection of lands, establish systematic monitoring of the state of lands (monitoring), and create a Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring.

4. The principle of combining state regulation with local self-government is expressed in the following:

A) maximum involvement of citizens in the management of environmental protection. Legislation provides for three main forms:

When people themselves make appropriate decisions in the field of environmental protection (for example, a gathering of citizens of a particular region has the right to decide on limiting certain types of local production that violate local ecological systems);

Representative democracy, when citizens elect their people's deputies, and they exercise power (for example, they adopt environmental laws on behalf of their voters);

Contractual democracy, when citizens enter into certain contractual obligations in the field of environmental protection in a given area (for example, labor legislation provides for a collective agreement, through which employees of a given particular enterprise are entitled to

to provide in it provisions on environmental protection at an operating enterprise and the improvement of environmental management issues in the course of production activities);

B) the expansion of democratic principles in environmental protection management should be accompanied by the establishment of a well-defined individual responsibility of each for the entrusted area of \u200b\u200bwork, therefore, the principle of combining collegiality with one-man management is being implemented in the country at all levels.

3. The concept of a healthy lifestyle

It is obvious that the concept of a healthy lifestyle is not part of the interests of either tobacco companies or corporations that provide their customers with fatty, cheap and unhealthy food (such as McDonald's). But it is least of all beneficial to pharmaceutical firms. On the contrary, medicine has become one of the most profitable businesses. The pharmaceutical industry offers "health" to millions of patients, but often fails to deliver the promised product. Instead, it delivers drugs that only alleviate symptoms while supporting the cause of the disease as a condition for further business development. This industry spends twice as much money on fraud cover-ups as it does on researching drugs for future therapies.

This organized deception is the reason why such an investment business can continue behind the strategically designed smokescreen of human "benefactors". The lives of 6 billion people and the economies of most countries of the world are hostages to the criminal practices of this industry.

It should also be noted that a person himself often prefers a satisfying life, full of various pleasures, without thinking too much about the consequences. But it cannot be argued that this approach to life is a consequence of a low intellectual level. It is human nature to constantly strive for new, ever greater pleasures.

As you know, disease is nothing more than a consequence of more general and deeper processes. Below are some of the reasons for the decline in public health and possible solutions to this problem.

1. Lack of effective medicines. The solution to this problem, as noted, is hampered primarily by the pharmaceutical companies themselves, which are not interested in the presence on the market of inexpensive drugs that can cure the disease in a relatively short time with minimal side effects. However, it is surprising that even the emergence of new drugs that are able to successfully treat diseases does not eliminate the problem. The fact is that nature reacts to this with the appearance of new deadly viruses. There is an increase in the aggressiveness of the environment towards humans. It becomes clear that there is a constant game of human reason and nature, in which the latter is always one step ahead.

2. Lack of financial resources from the state. The availability of money makes it possible to develop programs for the prevention of diseases, improve working conditions, create an opportunity for good rest and health recovery, as well as implement other social projects aimed at preventing diseases among all segments of the population. The state itself, first of all, should be interested in improving the living and economic conditions of people, which reduces the incidence of diseases. However, it would be wrong to believe that the availability of finance is a sufficient condition for the successful resolution of this issue. So, today the gold reserve in Russia exceeds all indicators of previous years, and petrodollars - the main source of income for the state treasury - flow like a river. However, this does not have a significant impact on public health.

Thus, the entire history of mankind unambiguously shows us that neither the development of science, nor the economic well-being of the state can lead us to the desired result. The problem has not been resolved to this day, and over time it becomes more acute and urgent. It is logical to assume that the cause of the current crisis is not open, obvious and understandable for us.

The world is going through an anthropological catastrophe. This catastrophe affects all dimensions of human existence, in fact identifies the rapidly developing "world pathology", the disharmony of the interaction of the world economy and the biosphere. V.P. Kaznacheev calls such a system of imperatives “the dictatorship of nature”, which tightens its dictate in relation to humanity through the limitation of resources and energy consumption, the increasing frequency of mass diseases, including a new, unknown etiology, among which is AIDS, the spread of which, according to a number of estimates, it can have disastrous consequences for the future of humanity. Global pathology is a reflection of the worldwide disharmony that appeared towards the end of the 20th century. The logic of understanding this metamorphosis through the prism of general harmony and disharmony, health and pathology determines the conclusions of this work.

Global harmony of the world is a complex concept. It is possible to formulate the thesis: the global is beginning to be more and more determined by harmony in the "human world", in its spiritual, informational, cultural spaces.

4. Ecopolis instead of a metropolis

It has already been said that the formation of a mass movement in defense of nature has led to an ever greater spread of that form of attitude, which is quite accurately conveyed by the words "ecological consciousness". Each result of human activity, its near and distant goals, the means that we choose to achieve what we want, we began to evaluate not separately, not only in connection with intraprofessional experience, but in the context of the dynamic balance of natural processes. The seemingly new and even extravagant idea of \u200b\u200bcities growing together into a single metropolis, put forward by Doxiadis, immediately showed its retrograde character in a collision with the emerging environmental consciousness.

The idea of \u200b\u200bDoxiadis had to be opposed by something and at the same time sufficiently universal. It is not surprising that at the end of the 70s an environmental cities - ecopolis... Strictly speaking, the tempting-sounding word did not mean too much at first, except for the clearly expressed tendency in it - to see the city as an inhabited territory and at the same time the central core of a larger inhabited territory. However, this is not a small amount, since for the first time urban planners, together with ecologists and the public, began to use the word “habitation” to mean something more than the development of a “niche” by a person for his immediate needs.

To consider the city as a dwelling place not only for people, but also for plants, animals, microorganisms, and the development of the city as the development of a vast community, was at first unusual and difficult. Naturally, at the initial stage of the development of the idea of \u200b\u200becopolis, biologists played the first violin. The dossier of voluntary and involuntary mistakes in urban planning and organization of urban economy was rapidly growing.

A direct link has been established between the use of leaking dumpsters and open country dumps and a sharp increase in the number of crows and jackdaws, which, in turn, led to a decrease in the number of songbirds and squirrels. A direct link has been established between the use of salt to speed up snow melting on city streets and the deterioration of the health of urban greenery. The unacceptability of continuous asphalting of vast areas, which sharply worsens the balance of groundwater and the condition of the soil in adjacent parks and squares, was found out. It was clarified that the economic losses from atmospheric pollution in the city are much greater than previously thought: to the increase in the number of medical calls and bulletins, losses for corrosion of metal, stone, concrete, painted surfaces were added ...

The list is long, but it is important that along with losses and errors, new opportunities were revealed. Thus, it was possible to show and prove that the heat, wastedly emitted into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises and energy systems, can be effectively used to create greenhouses and greenhouses, that the city can be not only a consumer, but also a producer of food products. It was established that the ban on the use of pesticides within the city (human health) led to the fact that many valuable species of living beings, starting with bumblebees, took refuge in the city as a refuge, and therefore the city should be considered as a kind of reserve. We carefully calculated the ability of different plants to absorb harmful substances from the air of the city, which led to a significant change in ideas about the greenery that the city needs ...

This, however, was only the beginning. When it was realized that ecology is not so much biological as a social science based on biological knowledge, the concept of ecopolis began to rapidly expand and become more complex in content. Ecopolis began to be understood as such a habitat for humans and other living beings, where the spiritual potential of the human community can be revealed to the fullest. This meant, first of all, that in the urban environment we could see a real school - not in a figurative, in a literal sense. Born and matured in a city, a person learns the world order, understanding of nature and society, not only and even not so much in school lessons, but in the process of everyday behavior.

The monotony and mechanicalness of the city's appearance causes an acute psyche due to the variety of impressions: psychologists call it sensory starvation and interpret it with good reason as a serious illness. On the contrary, the saturation of visual information, its artistic coherence, greatly expands the abilities of the imagination, and therefore the ability to perceive meaningful information in general, to learn anything in general. The natural complex of the city is the main type of natural environment with which each of us has daily communication. This does not mean the uselessness or senselessness of the Sunday aspiration "out of town" (by the way, it leads more and more often to the ecological overload of suburban areas, flora and which is becoming scarce under the pressure of millions of feet). However, the city itself should give a person, especially a growing person, an accessible completeness of direct communication with nature. Consequently, giant multi-storey residential buildings, which served as a way out of the housing crisis for their time, cannot be considered by us as a promising type of dwelling.

The stability of the dimensions of the human body also means the stability of the normal correlation of a person with the dimensions of the environment, that is, the fundamental constancy of scale. This means that the revival of the dimensions of its quarters, streets and squares formed by the history of the city is by no means an artistic whim, but a real necessity due to the human psyche. Of course, a person is plastic and hardy, he is able to withstand long-term disruption of natural conditions for himself. However, any such violation, if it lasts long enough, is a constant stress, the weakening and ultimately removal of which appears as a social necessity.

The city exists in a natural context, transformed by human economic activity, and therefore the development of an ecopolis certainly means the desire to transfer the city to “ waste-free technology”. The task is clear - to reduce to a minimum, ideally to completely eliminate any harmful impact of the city on its surroundings. Previously, it seemed permissible to divert or drive away from the city its solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Over time, it became clear that there is no such distance that would guarantee the city itself from the effect “ boomerang”, Not to mention the inadmissibility of the“ export ”of harmful substances into the natural environment. Atmospheric flows, underground waters do not recognize boundaries: you can take water three dozen kilometers from a suburban park and after a few years make sure that there is not enough water for its fountains; it is possible to lay reclamation canals far from the city and after a short period of time find out that the city basements begin to fill with water or, on the contrary, the trees of the city park begin to dry.

Anyone who is professionally concerned with solving the city's problems was bombarded with such new information that it was hard not to get lost. Moreover, in order to fully implement the recommendations of socioecologists, not so much gigantic additional funds are needed, but huge additional work - both intellectual and physical.

It turned out that without the direct participation of thousands and thousands of townspeople in the process of settling in and reconstruction of the city on its way to the eco-policy, it is in principle impossible to achieve the goal. But after all, people agree to voluntarily donate energy and time only when the goal and meaning of work is clear to them, when the goal and meaning become their own, internal for them. It just happened that the movement of citizens to defend their right to participate in making urban planning decisions is meeting the increasingly recognized need of the city authorities and their hired experts. The dialogue between designers, scientists, administrators and those who have recently been called consumers in a rather offensive way, thereby acquires an objective necessity.

It is not an easy and long way from the moment when few enthusiasts realize the strategic task, to the time when it is realized by an active minority, and then by the majority of citizens. However, there is no alternative. To implement the idea of \u200b\u200becopolis in every city, super-large and small, one needs not so much new means as new thinking. Sermons, lectures, punishments will not help the cause - after all, it is about making eco-policy a natural moral norm. The point is to get used to the internal prohibition on barbaric action in relation to a monument of antiquity, or a living blade of grass, an animal and an insect, not because punishment or censure is threatening for this, but because it is impossible to think otherwise. It is about getting used to the internal need to participate in the formation of the eco-policy - not only wielding a shovel or pruning shears, but also researching, comprehending, discussing projects, making constructive proposals at all levels of the urban environment.

Conclusion

Human health synthesizes physical, spiritual and social health, in which the preservation of a balanced, balanced relationship with the environment is manifested, and therefore, harmonized human interaction with nature.

Scientists say that a person must come to harmony with the environment. Of course, then the main problem will be to understand to what extent the natural impact is directed specifically at us, and only after that we can look for some way out of the current crisis. The aggregate mind of mankind can become a harmonizer of socio-natural evolution. The key problem for all areas of health protection is the formation of a culture of health, increasing the prestige of health, self-awareness of the value of health as a factor of vitality, active longevity; social and economic motive for maintaining and strengthening health. Many diseases are easily prevented in advance, and this does not require large costs. But the treatment of the final stages of the disease is expensive, that is, all preventive and health-saving measures are always beneficial. If a person begins to invest in health preservation systems earlier, then in general he spends much less money and time on his health. The highest priority is to increase the level of psychophysical health, maintain optimal performance, professionalism of workers, the quality of life of the population and the individual's achievement of a genetically determined life expectancy, which ultimately provides the need for more healthy way life.

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