The development of abnormal children depends on. Abnormal children

The study of the patterns of anomalies in the development of the psyche is concentrated in the field of pediatric pathopsychology, defectology (special psychology and special pedagogy) and child psychiatry. Defectology as a field of knowledge has developed as a result of the development and integration of its individual branches: deaf education (education and training of children with hearing impairments); typhlopedagogy (education and training of children with visual impairments); oligophrenopedagogy (education and training of mentally retarded children); speech therapy (study and correction of speech deficiencies), as well as identifying general patterns of development, education and upbringing of abnormal children. Adequate in these conditions is an integrated approach to the study of abnormal children by various specialists (teachers, doctors, defectologists, psychologists, physiologists).

According to the definition in the medical dictionary, a defect (defectus; Latin falling away, decreasing, deficiency) is in psychiatry a form of personality change, characterized by impoverishment, simplification of its predominantly higher properties and loss of previous capabilities, which is observed in various diseases and brain injuries.

A defect in one of the functions disrupts the development of the child only under certain circumstances. The presence of this or that defect does not yet predetermine abnormal development. Hearing loss in one ear or visual impairment in one eye does not necessarily lead to a developmental defect, since in these cases the ability to perceive sound and visual signals remains. Defects of this kind do not interfere with communication with others, do not interfere with the mastery of educational material and learning in mass school. Therefore, these defects are not the cause of abnormal development.

A defect in an adult who has reached a certain level of general development cannot lead to deviations, since his mental development took place in normal conditions Special psychology. Educational and methodological recommendations for students and teachers of the pedagogical university. - Tula. - 2001. - S. 5 ..

L.S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of primary and secondary defects. Primary defects arise as a result of organic damage or underdevelopment of any biological system (analyzers, higher parts of the brain, etc.) due to the influence of pathogenic factors. Secondary - have the character of mental underdevelopment and violations of social behavior, not directly arising from the primary defect, but caused by it (speech impairment in the deaf, impaired perception and spatial orientation in the blind, etc.). The further the existing violation is from the biological basis, the more successfully it lends itself to psychological and pedagogical correction. "The most educated are the higher functions in comparison with the elementary ones" Fundamentals of correctional pedagogy. Educational - methodical manual / Authors-comp. Zaitsev D.V., Zaitseva N.V., Saratov Pedagogical Institute state university them. N.G. Chernyshevsky. Saratov, 1999.

The abnormal development is always based on organic or functional disorders. nervous system or peripheral disorders of a specific analyzer. However, in some cases, deviations from normal development can be caused by purely environmental reasons, not associated with a violation of the analytic systems or the central nervous system. Thus, unfavorable family forms of upbringing a child can lead to "pedagogical neglect."

The causes leading to the occurrence of childhood anomalies are divided into congenital and acquired (they will be discussed in detail below). Obeying in general the general laws of the child's mental development, the development of the abnormal has a number of its own laws, in the determination of which the research of domestic defectologists, especially L.S. Vygotsky. He put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe complex structure of the abnormal development of a child, according to which the presence of a defect in any one analyzer or an intellectual defect does not cause the loss of one function, but leads to a number of deviations, resulting in a holistic picture of a kind of atypical development. The complexity of the structure of abnormal development lies in the presence of a primary defect caused by a biological factor, and secondary disorders arising under the influence of a primary defect in the course of the subsequent abnormal development Astapov V.M. Introduction to defectology with the basics of neuro- and pathopsychology. - M .: International Pedagogical Academy, 1994. - P.4 ..

So, in case of impaired auditory perception, which arose as a result of damage to the hearing aid and is a primary defect, the appearance of deafness is not limited to the loss of the function of auditory perception. The auditory analyzer plays an exceptional role in the development of speech. And if deafness arose before the period of mastering speech, then as a result, dumbness occurs - a secondary defect. Such a child will be able to master speech only under conditions of special training with the use of intact analytic systems: vision, kinesthetic sensations, tactile-vibrational sensitivity.

Intellectual disability resulting from a primary defect - organic brain damage, gives rise to a secondary violation of higher cognitive processes that manifest themselves in the course of the child's social development. Secondary underdevelopment of the mental properties of the personality of a mentally retarded child is manifested in primitive reactions, overestimated self-esteem, negativism, and underdevelopment of will.

Attention should be paid to the interaction of primary and secondary defects. Not only the primary defect can cause secondary deviations, but also secondary symptoms in certain conditions affect the primary factor. So, the interaction of hearing impairment and the speech consequences arising on this basis is evidence of the reverse effect of secondary symptoms on the primary defect. A child with partial hearing loss will not use his preserved functions if he does not develop oral speech. Only under the condition of intensive lessons in oral speech, that is, overcoming the secondary defect of speech underdevelopment, are the possibilities of residual hearing optimally used. It is necessary to widely use the psychological and pedagogical influence on the secondary deviations of an abnormal child, since they are largely available for corrective action, since their occurrence is associated with the action of mainly environmental factors in the development of the psyche. An organic defect leads to the impossibility or extreme difficulty of a child's assimilation of culture, and after all, only on the basis of such assimilation can the higher mental functions of a person, his consciousness, his personality be formed Astapov V.M. Introduction to defectology with the basics of neuro- and pathopsychology. - M .: International Pedagogical Academy, 1994. - P.6 ..

An important pattern of abnormal development is the ratio of the primary defect and secondary disorders. The underdevelopment of higher psychological functions and higher characterological formations, which is a secondary complication in oligophrenia and psychopathy, in fact turns out to be less stable, more amenable to influence than the underdevelopment of the lower, or elementary, processes, directly caused by the defect itself. What has arisen in the process of a child's development as a secondary education, in principle, can be preventively prevented or treated and pedagogically eliminated. "

In defectology, the main categories of abnormal children are distinguished:

• - with severe and persistent hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing, late deaf);
• - with profound visual impairments (blind, visually impaired);
• - with violations intellectual development on the basis of organic damage to the central nervous system (mentally retarded);
• - with heavy speech disorders (children-speech pathologists);
• - with complex disorders of psychophysical development (deaf-blind, mentally retarded, deaf, mentally retarded, etc.);
• - with disorders of the musculoskeletal system;
• - with pronounced psychopathic forms of behavior.

The process of teaching abnormal children is based not only on the formed functions, but also on the forming ones. The task of training is to gradually and consistently transfer the zone of proximal development to the zone of actual development. Correction and compensation for the abnormal development of a child is possible only with a constant expansion of the zone of proximal development, remembering that “the principle and psychological mechanism of upbringing here are the same as in a normal child Astapov VM Introduction to defectology with the basics of neuro- and pathopsychology.

Depending on the nature of the violation, some defects can be completely overcome in the process of development, education and upbringing of the child (for example, in children of the third and sixth groups), others can only be smoothed out, and some can only be compensated. The complexity and nature of the violation of the normal development of the child determine the peculiarities of the formation of the necessary knowledge, abilities and skills in him, as well as various forms of pedagogical work with him. One child with developmental disabilities can master only basic general educational knowledge (read syllables and write in simple sentences), the other is relatively unlimited in his abilities (for example, a child with mental retardation or hearing impairment). The structure of the defect also affects the practical activity of children. Some atypical children in the future have the opportunity to become highly qualified specialists, while others will carry out low-skilled work throughout their lives. Fundamentals of Correctional Pedagogy. Educational - methodical manual / Authors-comp. Zaitsev D.V., Zaitseva N.V., Pedagogical Institute of the Saratov State University named after M.V. N.G. Chernyshevsky. Saratov, 1999. - P.26 ..

anomaly pathology psyche

Abnormal development - a violation of the general course of human development as a result of any physical or mental defects. The term "anomalous" is based on the Greek word "anomalos", which translated into Russian means "wrong."

Abnormal children are children who, as a result of a mental or physiological abnormality, have a violation of general development. The main categories of abnormal children include children: 1) with hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing, late deaf);

2) with visual impairment (blind, visually impaired);

3) with severe speech development disorders;

4) with impaired intellectual development (children with mental retardation, mentally retarded children);

5) with complex disorders of psychophysiological development (deaf-blind, mentally retarded, deaf, mentally retarded, etc.);

6) with disorders of the musculoskeletal system. In addition to the listed groups, there are other groups of children with developmental disabilities:

1) children with psychopathic behaviors;

2) children with difficulties in adapting to school, suffering from so-called school neuroses;

3) gifted children requiring special attention from teachers and psychologists.

In its composition, the group of abnormal children is complex and diverse. Various developmental disorders have different effects on the formation of social ties in children, on their cognitive ^ capabilities and labor activity... Depending on the nature and time of the violation, some defects can be completely overcome in the process of the child's development, others can only be compensated for, and still others can only be corrected. The nature and level of complexity of a particular defect in the process of normal development of an individual determine the appropriate forms of pedagogical work with him. Disorders in the mental or physical development of the child affect the entire course of the development of his cognitive activity.

The concept of "defect" is based on the Latin word "defectus" - "deficiency". Each defect has its own structure. The concept of "structure of a defect" was introduced by the well-known Russian psychologist D.S. So, any deviation, for example, hearing, vision, speech impairment, entails secondary deviations, and in the absence of appropriate corrective work, also tertiary deviations. With different primary cause some secondary abnormalities have similar manifestations, especially in infancy, early or preschool age... In secondary deviations, the systemic nature and their presence becomes the cause of changes in the entire structure of the child's mental development. Overcoming primary defects is possible under the condition of competent medical influence, when the elimination of secondary deviations occurs with corrective and pedagogical influence. The need for the earliest correction of secondary disorders is due to the peculiarities of the mental development of children: a change in the hierarchical relationship between the primary and secondary defect.

35. The concept of "deprivation". Mental condition in a deprivation situation. Features of deprivation psychological development in infancy, early and preschool age.

The term "deprivation" is widely used today in psychology and medicine. He came from English and in everyday speech means " deprivation or limitation of opportunities to meet vital needs».

Communication between an infant and adults proceeds independently, outside of any other activity and constitutes the leading activity of a child of a given age and is of great importance for the general mental development of a child. The attention and benevolence of adults cause bright joyful experiences in children, and positive emotions increase the vitality of the child, activate his functions. The social situation of the child's common life with the mother leads to the emergence of direct-emotional communication (according to D.B. Elkonin) or situational-personal communication (according to M.I. Lisina) between the child and the mother in infancy. For the purposes of communication, children need to learn to perceive the influences of adults, and this stimulates the formation of perceptual actions in infants in the visual, auditory and other analyzers. Assimilated in the social sphere, these acquisitions then begin to be used for acquaintance with the objective world, which leads to a general significant progress of cognitive processes in children.

The symptoms of hospitalism, dangerous for the full development of the baby, can occur during early separation (placing the child in the hospital) and even in the family. Rare short-term and insufficiently emotionally intense contacts with adults create a “communication deficit”. This happens when relatives give the child insufficient warmth and attention, in a situation of social and economic distress, or when the child is not accepted by the mother (unwanted pregnancy, non-conformity of his gender to the expected). Difficult (to interact with them) are infants belonging to the so-called risk group for biological and medical indicators and children in residential institutions.

The behavior of such children in the first months is characterized by the so-called “key signal deficiency” syndrome. Children begin to smile at a later date, and the smiles are blurred, unexpressed. The need for communication is revealed later, and communication itself occurs more sluggishly, the revitalization complex is weakly expressed and develops with difficulty, it includes less diverse manifestations, it fades out faster when the adult's activity disappears.

Thus, the first year of life is of fundamental importance for the entire subsequent development of the child. Characteristic changes in behavior on the part of an adult (less sensitivity to the child's signals, dominance, lack of involvement in communication, emotional detachment) and on the part of the child (reduction and weakening of signals, less responsiveness to the social behavior of an adult, reduced initiative) are highly likely to lead to disorders interactions in the "mother-infant" system, deviations and changes in the course and pace of child development.

In Russian psychology, interest in the laws of mental development in various types of insufficiency has arisen for a long time.

Since the creation of special educational institutions all psychological research was aimed at studying the originality of cognitive processes in children. In the course of this study, it became clear that the most general patterns found in the mental development of a normal child can also be traced in children with various developmental pathologies. The first who tried to purposefully consider this issue was G.Ya. Troshin, and then L.S. Vygotsky.

These patterns include a certain sequence of stages in the development of the psyche, the presence of sensitive periods in the development of mental functions, the sequence of development of all mental processes, the role of activity in mental development, the role of speech in the formation of higher mental functions, the leading role of learning in mental development. These specific manifestations of the commonality of normal and impaired development were clearly shown in the works of Zankov, Vlasova, Solovyov, Rozanova, Shif, Petrova.

Considering mental retardation, blindness, deafness, he noted that their causes (mainly diseases, injuries, heredity) lead to the occurrence of a basic disorder in the field of mental activity, which is defined as a primary disorder. So, with blindness, the primary violation is the shutdown, or a pronounced insufficiency of visual perception, with deafness - gross violations, or complete shutdown of auditory perception, with mental retardation, a violation of the analetico-synthetic activity of the brain.

It is KNOWN that with a primary disorder, if it occurs in early childhood, there are peculiar changes in the entire mental development of the child, which manifests itself in the formation of secondary and tertiary disorders. All of them are due to the primary disorder and depend on its nature (type of primary deficiency, severity and time of occurrence). For example, in deafness, the primary impairment is switching off or gross pathology of auditory perception. A secondary defect is a violation of speech development, tk. verbal speech in the absence of hearing in a child independently (as it happens with hearing people) does not develop. However, the violation of speech development, in turn, negatively affects the development of mental activity, the shortcomings in the formation of which are no longer defects of the third order, leading further to difficulties in communication. With partial hearing impairment - in children with hearing impairment, the primary defect is less pronounced, and impairments in the development of speech are of a different nature. For example, speech can be formed on the basis of impaired hearing, although it is characterized by defects in pronunciation, grammatical structure, limited vocabulary, slow formation of concepts and their insufficiency. These deficiencies also lead to impairments in the formation of mental activity and other defects. With hearing loss at the age when verbal speech is already formed (after 6 years), secondary defects become even less pronounced.

The emergence of secondary defects in the process of mental development of a child with developmental problems was identified by L.S. Vygotsky as a general pattern of abnormal development.

He also identified one more pattern - difficulty in interacting with the social environment and in violation of ties with the outside world.

If the general laws are arranged in the order of their significance and universality, then it looks like this:

Reduced ability to receive and process information;

For all types of violations, the amount of information that can be received per unit of time is to one degree or another lower than normal (children with pathology need more time).

Will give an example of specific patterns of problematic child development.

It is known that speech in a deaf child will never develop without specially organized help. It is known that hearing children develop speech according to certain stages (humming, babbling). Deaf children do not hear the sounds they utter and are deprived of stimulation for the development of babbling, therefore, the humming fades away without turning into babbling. But if a hearing aid is offered to a child in the first year of life, then in one way or another he has the opportunity to hear sounds, including those that he reproduces. Thus, the child's development is approaching normal.

The specificity is manifested in the mental development of children with profound visual impairments. We receive 80% of information using vision. Hearing and touching become sources of information. So, the development of the child is different from that of the sighted, the image of the world is formed differently.

With mental retardation, information processing (analetico-synthetic activity) suffers, the formation of objective activity, speech, concepts, and elementary mental operations lags behind.

The specificity is also characteristic of the sensitive periods of development. Note that the sensitive periods in children with developmental problems do not coincide with the sensitive periods of children developing normally. This is due to the physiological maturity of the nervous structures.

The concept of "norm" and "abnormal development". The theory of L.S. Vygotsky on the complex structure of a defect in abnormal development

Determination of the norm, the degree of normality is still a complex, responsible interdisciplinary problem. The "norm" in relation to the level of psychosocial development of a person is increasingly "blurred" and considered in different meanings.

Allocate statistical, functional and perfect the norm. Statistical the norm is the level of psychosocial development of a person, which corresponds to the average qualitative and quantitative indicators obtained when examining a representative group of the population of people of the same age, gender, culture, etc. the statistical norm is a certain range of values \u200b\u200bfor the development of any quality (height, weight, level of intelligence, its individual components), located around the arithmetic mean.

Functional norm -it is the uniqueness of the path of development of each person. This is an individual developmental norm, which is the starting point of rehabilitation work with a person, regardless of the nature of the disorder he has. That is, when, in the process of independent development or as a result of psychological and pedagogical correctional work, there is a combination of relationships between the individual and society, in which the person productively performs his leading activity without prolonged external and internal conflicts. This is a kind of harmonious balance between opportunities, desires and skills, on the one hand, and the requirements of society, on the other.

The ideal norm issome kind of optimal development of the individual in optimal social conditions for her. We can say that this is the highest level of the functional norm.

In psychology, the norm of reaction (motor, sensory), the norm of cognitive functions (perception, memory, thinking) are considered. Norm of regulation, emotional norm, personality norm, etc. so, a norm is an established measure of the average of something. The problem of the criteria of the norm acquires special relevance in the context of correctional and developmental activities for solving problems aimed at upbringing and re-education. In psychology, as well as in pedagogy, they use such concepts as

Subject norm - knowledge, abilities, skills, actions necessary for the child to master the content of the educational and training program;

Social age norm - indicators of intelligence and personal development of the child, which should develop by the end of a certain age period;

Individual norm - manifests itself in the individual characteristics of the child's development.

Abnormal development -this is a deviation from the norm, patterns of development, incorrect development. It is known that the number of children developing in conditions of pathology is constantly growing. This trend is due to various factors. Among them:

destabilization of society and individual families;

absence in some cases of normal hygienic, ecological, economic conditions for expectant mothers and children from different age groups;

many children have mental and cognitive deprivation due to insufficient satisfaction of sensory and emotional contacts and needs that lead to various diseases and developmental disabilities;

among other factors, it is necessary to note the genetic orientation of the issue, as well as the influence of endo and exogenous factors during prenatal, natal and postnatal development.

The concept " defect ", its primary, secondary and tertiary nature was introduced by the famous Russian scientist L.S. Vygotsky. So, a defect is a physical or mental disability that causes a disruption in the course of the normal development of the child.

Primarydefects arise as a result of organic damage or underdevelopment of any biological system (analyzers, higher parts of the brain, etc.) due to the influence of pathogenic factors. It manifests itself in the form of hearing impairment, vision, paralysis, intellectual disability, etc. So, the primary defect is always biological in origin.

Secondarydefects are of the nature of mental underdevelopment and social behavior disorders, not directly arising from the primary defect, but caused by it (speech impairment in the deaf, impaired perception and spatial orientation in the blind, etc.). They arise in the course of a child's life against the background of impaired psychophysical development and negative social environment. Those functions are subject to secondary underdevelopment

which are directly related to organically damaged ones (the formation of speech in the deaf);

secondary underdevelopment is characteristic of those functions that were in the period of their development at the time of damage;

social deprivation - the isolation of a child from peers and adults inhibits the assimilation of knowledge and skills.

In the process of development, the hierarchy between the primary and secondary disorders changes. At the initial stages, the main obstacle to learning and upbringing is an organic (primary) defect, then in the case of an untimely started corrective and developmental work or in the absence of it, the phenomena of mental underdevelopment appear a second time, as well as inadequate personal attitudes caused by failures in different types activities. Here arises tertiary a defect in the form of the formation of a negative attitude towards oneself, the social environment, the main types of activity. Often the tertiary defect is expressed in the antisocial behavior of children.

Concept abnormal child in Soviet defectology reflects a system of provisions characterizing a child with a defect from the standpoint development.

The most important point is that, unlike a defect in an adult, a defect that occurs in a child under one or another disease-causing influence can lead to a number of developmental deviations. Calling a child with a defect abnormal, Soviet defectologists proceed, first of all, from the position that a defect in a particular function can lead to a violation of the general course of the child's development. only under certain conditions.

Abnormal only a child is considered whose development is impaired in one sense or another. This means that not every child with a defect can be classified as abnormal. So, for example, a child who is deprived of one eye, has lost hearing in one ear, etc., most often does not have developmental disabilities and, therefore, is not abnormal... The category of abnormal includes only those children in whom the normal course of mental development is disturbed due to a defect. In other words: when defining the concept of abnormal children, we are talking about the abnormal development of the child, and not about a separate defect.

Of fundamental importance is the fact that the concept abnormal child development is by no means limited to negative signs. Along with them, in the development of the abnormal child, a whole series of peculiar manifestations arising from the child's social adaptation are revealed. It would be wrong, for example, to only negatively characterize (as some do) the spatial orientation of a blind person who, due to the lack of visual impressions, finds special ways of orienting himself in space, using the subtlest sensations of air pressure, temperature changes, smells, etc.

Thus, the abnormal development of the child will most correctly understand as a peculiar, not as a defective development.

Research carried out at the Institute of Defectology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR made it possible to determine a number of regularities characterizing the abnormal development of a child with one or another defect. In the thirties, the Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky put forward the idea complex structure of abnormal development of a child with a defect.

When studying children in need of special corrective action, it was found that a defect resulting from a particular disease does not represent an isolated loss. In the course of development, a child with a defect in the analyzer or an intellectual defect develops a number of deviations, creating a holistic picture of atypical, abnormal development.

In the complex structure of abnormal development, it primarily differs primary defect, directly arising under the disease-causing influence, as well as a number of secondary deviationsthat are the result of developmental disorders caused by the primary defect.

An example of a primary defect is:

• impaired auditory perception resulting from damage to the child's hearing system;
• violation of visual perception resulting from damage to the visual apparatus;
• violation of elementary intellectual operations as a result of damage to the central nervous system, etc.

Secondary dysfunction is usually the result of abnormal development. Lack of the usual support required for each evolving function, the need to use other preserved functions for its development creates its deep originality.

Let's try to demonstrate the complex structure of abnormal development in specific cases. Characterized, for example, is the structure of the abnormal development of a child who has lost his hearing in early age in the process of transferred meningitis. With meningitis, i.e. with inflammation meninges, cranial nerves are often involved in the pathological process. In an inflammatory process that affects the eighth pair of nerves (auditory nerve), the child has a so-called meningoneuritis, which usually leads to hearing impairment. In cases of deep bilateral lesions of the auditory nerves, a more or less complete absence of hearing (deafness) can be observed.

Deafness that occurs in early childhood disrupts the normal course of a child's development.

Originality auditory analyzer, unlike other analyzers, consists in its exclusive role in the development and functioning of speech. In other words, speech is the closest function, primarily dependent on the auditory analyzer. When early emergence deafness, the child does not develop oral speech. Dumbness in this case is a secondary defect resulting from impaired development.

The mastery of oral speech in a child who has lost his hearing at an early age is only possible under conditions of special training based on intact analyzers: vision, tactile-vibration sensitivity; kinesthetic sensitivity; temperature sensitivity, etc. The development of speech in this case proceeds in a peculiar way: pronunciation, devoid of auditory control, turns out to be sharply insufficient; vocabulary accumulates slowly; meanings of words are learned imprecisely, etc. In the process of special teaching of speech in a deaf child, a number of characteristic deviations are observed, which turn out to be a consequence of the limited speech experience at an early stage of development. We observe, for example, in a deaf child an extremely peculiar mastery of the meaning of a word. A deaf child at an early stage of learning replaces some words with others. Errors in the use of words at an early stage in the development of a deaf child reveal an overly specific understanding of them and, for a relatively long time, an almost complete impossibility of understanding words that have any abstract meaning. A deaf child in primary school does not understand, for example, the difference in meanings of words clean - clean; fast - fast; strong - strong and for a very long time cannot understand the difference between these meanings and words purity, strength, speed etc. Such words represent a great degree of distraction for him. The mastery of the generalizations contained in them, in connection with deep speech underdevelopment, presents a special difficulty for him. The generalizations contained in the grammatical meanings of the language are even more difficult for him. Thus, secondary deviations in the development of a deaf child's speech lead to deviations of the third order - to a violation of verbal-logical thinking. Under the influence of the delay in the development of oral speech, we can observe other deviations in development in deaf children. For a very long time, deaf children cannot learn to express their thoughts and understand in writing. readable text... They have great difficulty in mastering the solution of textual arithmetic problems, since they do not understand the conditions of the problem.

In the early stages of their learning, there is also a delay in correlative thinking. For example, the selection in a certain sequence of pictures that make up a story is available to deaf children later than to normal hearing children. Series of pictures, which in the correct sequence are formed by normally hearing children at the age of 8, are formed by deaf children only by the age of 10. It is characteristic, however, that deaf children learning oral speech at preschool age recover with series of pictures no worse than those who hear normally. This proves that the underdevelopment of the correlative thinking of a deaf child is caused by a delay in speech development.

Numerous studies of primary school students of the deaf show a number of deviations in the development of their perception. 1 At the same time, it is characteristic that the secondarily delayed development of perception in deaf children very quickly leveled off with the beginning of special education.

Also note defect in memorizing language material in elementary school students for the deaf. At the same time, however, attention is drawn to the good memorization of pictures and other objects available for memorization without the participation of speech.

In the process of observing deaf children and adults who have not been taught to speak, some features of character underdevelopment, a primitive understanding of some moral requirements, etc. are revealed. And these phenomena are considered in modern defectology as a consequence of limited verbal communication with others.

Similarly to deaf children and blind children, a complex structure of abnormal development can be observed. The inability to distinguish between light and shadow, resulting from damage to the organs of vision, can be noted as a primary defect in an ordinary blind person.

Early visual impairment in a child leads to a number of developmental deviations.

Gedecke says the following about this: "From childhood, a blind person has different concepts, different ideas and other ways and forms of psychological activity, which mutually complement and complete each other." 2

The most famous secondary manifestation of abnormal development of the blind is lack of spatial orientation. Even more characteristic is the presence of a limited range of specific object concepts, which is observed with the onset of blindness at an early age.

Borya V. (a student of the third grade of the school for the blind), describing the dog, says: “The cat's paws are like sticks, well, like a chair's legs, smaller. The cat has a small tail, but the dog has a larger one, and the cat also walks crookedly, its head looks down, and the dog walks like me, in height ... ". 3

A limited supply of ideas for the blind N.S. Kostyuchok was also shown by quantitative research. It has been shown that the number of words in the blind is twice the number of their corresponding representations.

We should also consider changes in motor skills and, especially, gait in persons who lost their sight early as a secondary manifestation of abnormal development. The peculiarity of a blind person's gait is closely related to the need for orientation in space with the help of touch and kinesthetic sensitivity.

For the blind, insufficient expressiveness of facial expressions is characteristic, which arises as a result of a lack of visual impressions. There are also some characterological features.

Analyzing the structure of the abnormal development of a child with an intellectual defect resulting from damage to the cerebral cortex, we also have the opportunity to note, on the one hand, a symptom directly caused by a disease-causing effect (i.e., a primary defect), and, on the other hand, a number of secondary manifestations, arising in the disturbed course of the child's development.

L.S. Vygotsky, using the example of oligophrenia, developed his idea of \u200b\u200ba complex structure of abnormal child development. Using the example of oligophrenia, he showed that individual symptoms of abnormal development are in an extremely complex relationship to the main cause; the first and most frequent complication arising as a secondary symptom in dementia is the underdevelopment of the higher forms of memory, thinking, character, which take shape and arise in the process of the child's social development. Emphasizing the importance of collaboration in a team for the development of a child, L.S. Vygotsky showed that a mentally retarded child drops out of the collective due to his dementia. This causes secondary symptoms in its abnormal development. So, undoubtedly, underdevelopment of higher psychological functions arises, which is of interest in the sense that it is associated with oligophrenia mediated, and not a direct link. As a secondary education, there is also an underdevelopment of the personality of a child suffering from oligophrenia: primitive reactions, increased self-esteem, negativism, underdevelopment of the will of such a child are dynamically connected with his main defect. The neurotic reactions of L.S. Vygotsky also cited secondary complications as an example. Intellectual disability, in his opinion, is an extremely fertile ground for the emergence of neurotic reactions.

If we turn to the studies of children with speech impairments (see the works of R.E. Levina), then in them it will be possible to note, on the one hand, a symptom of the primary order, directly caused by the pathogenic cause that caused it, and a number of other symptoms that arise in the course of abnormal development. So, for example, with tongue stiffness (the primary symptom), resulting from a cleft lip and hard palate, there is an insufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word, which can lead to the writing disorder characteristic of these cases.

It goes without saying that the writing disorder with mechanical rhinolalia 4 (resulting from the cleavage of the hard palate) is not directly caused by the violation of the structure of the upper jaw. Insufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word with rhinolalia is the result of impaired development due to the limited and defective experience of observing one's own speech and the impossibility of comparing it with the speech of others.

A similar complex structure of abnormal development can be observed in other cases when a defect in a particular function disrupts the normal course of the child's mental development.

Each time we analyze the structure of the abnormal development of the child, we find symptoms that are in a different relationship with its root cause. One of the symptoms is directly related to the disease-causing effect, while the rest are in varying degrees associated with the primary defect and among themselves.

It is important to pay attention to the fact that in the course of abnormal development the primary symptom and the secondary symptomatology are in a natural interaction: not only the primary symptom creates conditions for the occurrence of secondary symptoms, but also the secondary symptomatology creates certain conditions that aggravate the primary symptom. An example of such a reverse effect of secondary symptomatology on the primary symptom is the interaction between hearing impairment and speech defects resulting from its inadequacy. With incomplete hearing loss, residual hearing is not used if the child has not learned to speak. Hearing defect is thus exacerbated by limited experience with hearing it; the auditory perception of speech turns out to be less than its objective capabilities. Only as the secondary underdevelopment of speech is overcome, the ability to adequately use the defective analyzer develops.

With a detailed examination of the symptoms observed in various forms of abnormal development, their constant, regular interaction is noted.

Considering the general patterns of the abnormal development of a child with a defect in one or another function, it is necessary to point out that the primary symptom needs medical influence to overcome it, while all secondary symptoms must be subjected to corrective pedagogical influence. And from this point of view, the analysis of the structure of the abnormal development of the child seems important not only theoretically, but also, mainly, practically.

Secondary symptomatology in an abnormal child, as a rule, lends itself to corrective, pedagogical influence. It is important to pay attention to the fact that different manifestations of abnormal development are available in different ways for corrective action. The closer the secondary symptom is to the root cause, the more difficult it is to correct.... For example, deviations in pronunciation in deaf children are most closely related to hearing impairment. Their correction turns out to be the most difficult, since the development of pronunciation is most dependent on hearing. The pronunciatory side of speech develops and reaches its perfection with the obligatory participation of auditory control over one's own speech in terms of its comparison with the sound of the speech of others. Without hearing, it is impossible to achieve perfectly normal intelligibility. This cannot be said about the development of other aspects of speech. So, for example, the acquisition of vocabulary by a child is not so completely dependent on hearing. Vocabulary is acquired normally not only through oral communication with the help of hearing.

True, normal hearing provides the greatest speech experience, but a word with its meaning is learned not only with the help of hearing. All analyzers, all methods of communication with the objective world are involved in the acquisition of the dictionary.

The most important role in this process is played by the comprehension of the surrounding reality, active mental activity, etc. The same applies to the grammatical aspect of speech. Mastering the grammatical structure of the language has the most favorable conditions in the presence of normal hearing, which provides the child with the richest speech practice. However, this aspect of speech is not so directly dependent on hearing as pronunciation. The mastery of the use of grammatical forms and the development of their understanding is also based on all analyzers that provide the child with an influx of impressions from the surrounding objects, phenomena and their relationships.

Through written speech, through the visual perception of oral speech, of course, under the conditions of special education, a deaf child has the opportunity to acquire vocabulary and master the grammatical structure of the language to the same extent as a normally hearing child. Similar results have not been achieved with respect to the pronunciation of deaf children. Using this example, we tried to show that secondary symptoms in a deaf child are overcome in different ways, depending on how closely this underdeveloped function is connected with the auditory analyzer. The principle of different overcoming of the secondary symptomatology of abnormal development can be shown on the example of a blind child.

The most difficult section of correctional work with blind children is the area of \u200b\u200bdeveloping visual representations. Normally, visual "representations arise mainly through the use of the visual analyzer; the visual analyzer allows you to perceive objects at a distance, to capture not only the shape, but also the subtlest color nuances. A blind person does not develop sufficiently visual representations. He uses" surrogates of representations " , as it is customary to talk about it in typhlopedagogy.

This is the case with visual representations in the blind. The situation is completely different with other secondary manifestations observed in the abnormal development of a blind child. So, for example, the stock of concepts that are normally based on concrete ideas also represents an exceptional originality in blind children. Above, we cited data that show that blind children lag behind in terms of understanding words with specific meanings. This secondary symptom in a blind child can be completely overcome, since mastering the meaning of a word is based not only on the visual analyzer; all analyzers, all ways of perceiving the objective world and mental activity participate in mastering the meaning of a word, in the accumulation of a full-fledged vocabulary.

It is possible to note other secondary symptoms, which are completely overcome in the conditions of special education and upbringing of a blind child. These are, for example, some of the features of his mental activity and character. The different overcoming of secondary deficiencies can be shown by the example of speech disorders. In the case of mechanical rhinolalia, which we mentioned above, after nasal pronunciation, there are defects in the pronunciation of consonants, which do not directly depend on the disturbed phonation 5. Difficulties in mastering writing are also often observed, and quite often there is some inadequacy of vocabulary and a little agrammatism. Research conducted at the school-clinic for speech disorders under the direction of R.E. Levina, show that overcoming nasal pronunciation is the greatest difficulty. It is much easier to overcome the defects of consonants, the pronunciation of which is not so directly dependent on the passage air jet with phonation. Vocabulary replenishment and refinement grammatical structure constitute the most effective area of \u200b\u200bcorrective work with these children.

Considering the issue of overcoming secondary formations on the example of oligophrenia, L.S. Vygotsky especially notes that the underdevelopment of higher mental functions, observed with mental retardation, is easier to pedagogical influence. At the same time, he emphasizes the seeming paradoxical nature of this position. The underdevelopment of higher mental functions, as a secondary complication of oligophrenia, is less stable, more susceptible to influence than the violation of elementary processes, more directly caused by the pathogenic influence.

Asserting the position of greater compliance to the pedagogical influence of higher mental education, L.S. Vygotsky referred to data from a study of twins. To concretize this idea in the analysis of oligophrenia, we will allow ourselves to give only one example. If the brain process underlying oligophrenia has led to the failure of the so-called rote memorization, pedagogical measures improve almost nothing. But the underdevelopment of higher logical memory that arises a second time in this case can be overcome in some respect by special pedagogical measures: it is possible to specially educate a mentally retarded child with meaningful logical memorization.

Thus, analysis of the complex structure of the child's abnormal development from the point of view of the ability to overcome various symptoms has not only theoretical, but also purely practical significance.

An adequate understanding of the complex structure of the abnormal development of a child with a defect requires an analysis of not only negative manifestations, but also all methods of adaptation of the child's personality to a particular defect. Not enough of this, each of the secondary symptoms should be considered not only from the negative side, but also as some manifestation of a kind of progressive course of development of a particular function.

In each of the deviations that have arisen in development, we see a certain dynamic uniqueness, and not a stable, having only a negative characteristic defect of the secondary order..

Let's give an example. Deaf children in the early stages of development have limited vocabulary and misuse. However, the analysis of errors in speech observed in deaf children makes it possible to consider them not only from the negative side. It is known that deaf children who have not yet mastered the language replace some words with others. They speak: spilled instead scattered; Boy hand holding ball instead holding a ball; The fox was happy instead happy; The cup broke into shares instead of on chunks etc. Such errors in the speech of the deaf should be considered, first of all, as the deepest deficiencies in speech. However, each of the above errors testifies to a meaningful, albeit very peculiar, use of the word. Each of the given substitutions demonstrates a certain stage in mastering the meaning of a word. Indeed, if the word share replaces the necessary word in this case chunks, it means that it (the word pai) has already acquired the meaning of a part of something for a deaf child, although it is obvious that he has not yet mastered its meaning with sufficient accuracy. The child who writes the word in the above sentence happiness instead happy, is already close to understanding this word, but has not yet reached the level of generalization in the language that would allow him to distinguish the more general concept of happiness from the state of happiness.

Let us dwell on the question of the nature, the essence of the unsuccessful attempts of deaf children to independently form a word. Boy flagal dresssays the deaf girl, trying to talk about the boy waving his dress like a flag. Incorrect word formation flagal, of course, primarily demonstrates the defective speech of the deaf person. However, analyzing this peculiar word in terms of development, we have the opportunity to consider it as a positive manifestation. Word formation flagal shows that the girl already distinguishes the names of actions in the language and has already noticed the connection between some names of actions and the names of objects. This level of language acquisition allowed her to form a kind of verb from the noun flag flagal... Thus, the ridiculous word formation flagal has not only negative, but also some positive characteristics, reflecting a peculiar way of speech development in the conditions of speech practice, limited by a hearing impairment.

We find similar opportunities for abnormal development in children with visual impairments. So, for example, as a secondary deficiency in a child who is deprived of sight, we observe a peculiar development of ideas. As we indicated above, a child deprived of the ability to visually perceive surrounding objects has a limited range of ideas about objects that are not accessible to touch.

A blind child may be unaware of many specific objects for a long time. And this is not enough. Those ideas that arise in the mind of a blind child may turn out to be inaccurate and distorted, lacking some characteristic features... In the study of N.S. Kostyuchok met the answers of the blind, demonstrating the complete loss of ideas about some of the most common objects. “The frog is crawling,” “The snake must be flying,” said pupils of the first and second grades of the school for the blind.

Such distortions of ideas with early visual impairment are extremely common. It goes without saying that such answers cannot satisfy us - they reflect a typical underdevelopment of ideas in children suffering from a defect in the visual analyzer. However, the analysis of such answers allows us to give a positive characterization of them from the point of view of the development of ideas in these children. N.S. Kostyuchok, who studied the recognition of objects by blind children, gives examples of how her subjects, while not yet able to recognize an object, nevertheless refer it to one of the groups similar to it. In her experiments, a disciple Genya Sh., Examining a stuffed fox, asks: “Who is this: a wolf or a dog? Fangs like theirs ... no, not a dog. "

Of particular interest are the answers that show that the ability to generalize in children who admit similar errors, is still on relatively high level... The tendency of the blind to use generalized knowledge to acquire more specific concepts about the surrounding objects is presented in psychological research. M.I. Zemtsova 6 shows how a blind child thinks out loud when examining an object and in this way gradually comes to recognize the object. A toy kettle is given to a blind child to recognize. Feeling it, the child says: “There is a spout for the water to flow. Water is poured here, and this is - from here it is poured into a cup or glass, and here they hold the handle. " In such a meaningful way, a blind child approaches the recognition of an object. Such complex reasoning is not required for a sighted child to recognize an object.

K. Burklen in the following words shows the possibility of a positive assessment of some of the shortcomings of the blind. “A blind person stumbles upon something everywhere,” says a sighted person, wishing to characterize a blind person by this, but at the same time he forgets that direct contact with objects is mostly necessary for a blind person in order to establish their presence or position. 7

Thus, secondary deviations in the psyche of a blind child, along with a negative characteristic, may have some positive assessment.

Such a positive analysis of the manifestation of the peculiar development of a blind child serves as the most important basis for the development of questions of a special educational process, which must inevitably be based on the positive capabilities of the student.

A similar approach to the consideration of secondary deviations seems to be necessary not only for deafness and blindness, but also for other forms of abnormal development.

Analyzing the complex structure of the developmental peculiarities of a child with a defect, we can note along with secondary negative symptoms and a number of symptoms arising as a result of the positive adaptation of the abnormal child to the social environment.

For deaf children, for example, facial communication is a kind of compensation for the absence of verbal communication. Expressive movements that exist in a normal child (usually accompanying his oral speech) with deaf-mute develop into a kind of speech system. At first, he uses only pointing gestures, then he uses gestures that imitate various actions, then the child learns with the help of expressive movements to describe and outline objects and depict them plastically. This is how deaf children develop a developed mimicogesticulatory speech.

Similarly, in children, from an early age without sight, some abilities are rapidly developing, reaching the minimum development in the norm. The so-called "sixth sense" of the blind is known, the sense of distance, which is the ability to detect the presence of approaching objects in the complete absence of sight. This ability develops in children who are blind from a very early age. The distant difference in objects during walking arises as a result of the developing ability to integrate stimuli perceived by the surviving analyzers: auditory, tactile, etc. The refined ability of the blind to distinguish the size of objects, their shape, the material from which they are made, etc., is widely known. A good auditory memory is also known in the majority of the blind. A number of other abilities can be noted that they develop well.

Analyzing the issue of abnormal children in the light of the problems of special corrective action, it is necessary to at least briefly talk about the sources of adaptation of an abnormal child to a defect.

A special corrective pedagogical process relies on those functions that remain in one way or another preserved in a given form of abnormal development. If the analyzer is disturbed, the adaptation of a child with a defect, first of all, occurs due to the intensive use of the surviving analyzers.

In case of hearing loss, an abnormal child thus uses visual and motor analyzers, relies on tactile-vibration and temperature sensitivity, etc. Correctional work in relation to such a child, it is specially organized so that the intact analyzers serve this adaptation as much as possible. So, for example, to form the perception of the speech of others, a deaf teacher teaches a deaf child to perceive speech visually, the so-called lip reading. When teaching pronunciation, visual and kinesthetic analyzers, tactile-vibration sensitivity (for example, when evoking a voice) and even temperature sensitivity (to distinguish the nature of the air stream when pronouncing some sounds) are used.

Similarly, the adaptation of a child who is deprived of vision is based on the auditory analyzer (for example, orientation in space). Of exceptional importance in such an adaptation is the sense of touch, on which a blind child relies in the process of cognizing the surrounding objective world. For orientation of a blind person in space and perception of surrounding objects, olfactory sensitivity, etc. is also important. In the typhlopedagogical correctional and educational process, preserved analyzers are maximally used by means of its special organization. For use by a blind child in cognitive process special devices are created for auditory perception. The most favorable conditions for tactile examination are organized.

The adaptation of a mentally retarded child also occurs due to reliance on more preserved functions (visual perception, memory, etc.). Secondary schools also make the most of the safety reserves available to each of the mentally retarded children. The most important role in this is played by the creation of such conditions that help the child, through the use of visual comparisons, to comprehend the surrounding reality.

Speech plays a special role in the adaptive process in its most important cognitive function. Verbal generalizations, for example, among the blind, often precede the emergence of ideas about the surrounding objects and serve as their basis. In the teaching process of the blind in a special school, the role of speech is incomparable. The correct use of verbal explanation enables the teacher to communicate to blind children knowledge about phenomena that are inaccessible to tactile perception.

Speech also plays an exceptional role in the adaptive process in children with no hearing. At first glance, the fact of the compensating role of speech may seem paradoxical when we are talking about a child who, due to a lack of hearing, very slowly and in a peculiar way masters speech.

In reality, however, the role of gradually developing speech in this process is exceptionally great. Deaf children have relatively large opportunities for visual reflection of the world around them. However, a deaf child cannot perceive many phenomena of the surrounding world due to the lack of hearing. He does not perceive many sound phenomena of the surrounding world, which enrich and develop a normally hearing child. This, as it turns out, can be compensated to some extent, replaced by verbal explanations.

The role of speech in the adaptive development of a mentally retarded child can hardly be overestimated. What a mentally retarded child does not always grasp directly can be replenished and is constantly replenished by others through special explanations using words available to the child.

The most important role of speech in the development of a child is associated with the generalizing function. In this sense, it is absolutely indispensable for the corrective process of the development of an abnormal child.

Analyzing the patterns of abnormal development of a child, it is necessary to dwell on the conditions that determine the diversity of his forms within each of the groups of abnormal children.

The first condition that determines this diversity is the degree and quality of the primary defect... Indeed, secondary symptoms may occur with a certain degree of impairment, or may not occur if the impairment is not too great. And this is not enough. With a small degree of impairment, one picture of abnormal development may occur, and with a gross lesion, a completely different one. With a slight hearing loss, very small deviations in the development of speech can occur, while with a gross hearing loss, the child remains completely dumb.

The second condition that determines the variety of forms of abnormal development is the age at which the primary defect occurs.

Let us explain this by the example of a visual defect. Violation of the organ of vision, which arose before birth, creates conditions under which the child does not have a stock of visual representations at all. All his ideas are the result of mastering the objective world with the help of analyzers and speech that he retained. A child who has lost his sight at a more or less conscious time in his life and has retained visual images in his memory develops in a completely different way. Examining a new object for him with the help of, for example, touch, such a child has the opportunity to compare his impressions with the images in his memory. A child who has lost his sight in preschool and even more so at school age is constantly looking for the similarities of the newly observed objects with those already known to him.

The ideas of a child who lost his sight later are closer to our ideas, and his entire development is fundamentally different from the development of a blind person.

Exactly the same applies to a deaf child. Early onset deafness, if it occurs in a period when the child does not yet own speech or uses it not yet so consciously as to be able to preserve it without the participation of hearing, leads to complete dumbness. The thinking of such a child at an early stage of development is of exceptional originality. His mental operations proceed on the basis of a visual comparison of the objects and phenomena around him. Mastering vocabulary is an extremely difficult task for him.

A completely different thing happens if a child who lost his hearing at a later age retained speech to some extent and, most importantly, continues to some extent to comprehend the surrounding reality with the help of even the most elementary verbal generalizations. The development of speech and the thinking associated with it proceeds in this case in incomparably more favorable conditions.

The so-called time factor is by no means indifferent to the development of a child with intellectual disabilities. A child who has suffered a brain disease at a very early age is defined as a typical oligophrenic. The picture of his intellectual disability usually has the character of a uniform violation. The onset of an intellectual disability at an older age usually creates an atypical picture. In the psyche of such a child, some traits acquired during the period of successful development may remain. The disintegrated mental functions are not identical with the underdeveloped functions.

Thus, the time of the onset of an intellectual defect largely determines the variety of forms of abnormal development in this group of children.

Environmental conditions and especially pedagogical conditions are of considerable importance for the development of an abnormal child. The sooner the people around the child notice the defect, the more opportunities to make adjustments to its abnormal development. So, for example, the early start of teaching a deaf child to speak makes it possible to prevent the abnormal development of his thinking and other mental functions.

A completely different picture of the development of a blind child is known, depending on the requirements of his environment. If a blind child is given the opportunity to move around early enough, to serve himself, to carry out some of the instructions of adults, then he is much better adapted to the conditions that are created as a result of a defect in visual perception. He learns to make the most of his intact receptors. It is easy to imagine how different the picture of abnormal development can be observed in children with intellectual disabilities, depending on one or another pedagogical approach to the child.

Analyzing the complex structure of the abnormal development of a child suffering from oligophrenia, L.S. Vygotsky pointed out the possibility of preventing, under certain pedagogical conditions, secondary manifestations of the underdevelopment of higher psychological functions, underdevelopment of character, etc.

An analysis of the concept of "abnormal children" would be incomplete if the issue of the abnormal development of a child with a partial defect was not covered.

The problem of the abnormal development of a child with a partial defect is a relatively new theoretical area of \u200b\u200bdefectology.

The clinic has long known the great complexity of the analysis of partial disorders in comparison with the analysis of total disorders.

The primary defect can be presented in children by a whole range of different degrees. This can be most clearly shown on the defects of the analyzers. Hearing measurement using special equipment makes it possible to determine the degree of residual function of the auditory analyzer.

The same can be observed in children with visual impairments. We know children with a complete lack of vision and children with insignificant remnants of vision, which make it possible only very approximately to distinguish between light and shadow; we know children who distinguish only the contours of objects at close range, and, finally, we observe children who, under conditions of good correction with the help of glasses, can normally see everything around them.

Modern research and the practice of special education for children with analyzer defects show that these children must (depending on the degree of analyzer impairment) be divided into groups. This is done so that different adequate conditions are created for different children.

In defectology, the need to distinguish children with very gross or even total defects of the analyzers from children who, to one degree or another, retained the function of this analyzer, has already been quite accurately established.

Special training in various conditions is organized for the blind and visually impaired, deaf and hearing impaired. And if this is so, then it is necessary to find a fundamental difference between a total and a partial defect. And besides, it is necessary to delimit children with a partial defect from the norm.

The need to distinguish between the forms and degrees of analyzer disorders has led to the creation of an exceptional variety of classifications. Almost every author covering the issues of special education for children with visual impairments and hearing impairments tries to give their own classification. Thus, Professor Burklen gives the classifications of nine authors. Still more different classifications can be found in the literature on hearing impairments. And this is not accidental: a clear classification is necessary for the differentiated teaching of different groups of children; and at the same time, the solution of the question of their pedagogical typology is very difficult. Classifications that have existed up to now have solved the issue largely formally.

Research in recent years has made it possible to approach these issues from a developmental perspective. Here, first of all, the question arises about the conditions under which a child with varying degrees of impairment of the analyzer can be classified as abnormal, about what are the criteria that make it possible to distinguish blindness from a partial visual defect, deafness from a partial hearing defect. In other words: we need to find objective criteria for assessing the degree of analyzer defect in a child... It should be recalled that this criterion will necessarily be different from the criteria for evaluating a similar defect in an adult, since we will evaluate a child's defect from the point of view of those developmental conditions that arise for him at each given degree of impairment of the analyzer.

When assessing a violation of the analyzer, we often observe an attempt to determine a partial violation, as opposed to a complete one, only in the absolute sense of the word (a complete defeat of the analyzer is considered one in which there is not the slightest remnants of its function); even the smallest residual analyzer function is already defined as partial failure. However, such an absolute evaluation of the analyzer function is not possible for any purpose. So, for medical diagnostics, for therapeutic purposes, such an approach may make some sense and, at the same time, an absolute assessment of the analyzer's defect is not suitable for pedagogical purposes. Defectology cannot be satisfied with such an absolute defect measurement for corrective purposes.

In the complete absence of the analyzer function, we are able to evaluate the defect in an absolute sense, but as soon as we observe at least the smallest remainder of its function, we are required to have a relative estimate of its residual function. It is known that the normal capabilities of analyzers far exceed the requirements of our everyday life. It is known that our ear can perceive whispering speech in complete silence at a distance of 20 meters from the auricle and that it is possible to create conditions under which a whisper will be perceived at a distance of 70 meters from the auricle. It goes without saying that the use of such heightened capabilities of the auditory analyzer may be required only in special cases; in ordinary life, however, such requirements are not imposed on hearing. This circumstance is of paramount importance for the assessment of a child's partial hearing impairment.

In some conditions, the auditory analyzer requires some capabilities, in others - different. So, some professions require (parachutist, radio operator, pilot, etc.) especially high hearing acuity, while in others, only the possibility of oral communication with the help of hearing is sufficient. Here comes to the fore a particularly characteristic phenomenon of the relative significance of the analyzer's residual function, depending on the conditions of its use.

Bearing in mind this principle of relativity when assessing a child's hearing impairment, we must first of all find out the real originality of those requirements that are imposed on the auditory analyzer in the process of child development... This allows us to establish the degree of hearing preservation that can be defined for a child as a relative norm, beyond which we should talk about partial hearing impairment. Approaching diagnostics from the perspective of the child's development, focusing on the above provisions on secondary formations in abnormal development, in order to delimit the norm from hearing impairment in a child, we turn to the function, the development of which primarily suffers when a child develops partial hearing impairment. Speech is such a function that suffers primarily with partial hearing impairment. And therefore, the criterion for delimiting a child's partial hearing loss from the norm is the possibility of impaired development of speech in a given state of hearing.

The assessment of partial visual impairment, in contrast to the conditional norm, should also be of a relative nature. Partial visual impairment should be considered in the light of the interaction of the visual analyzer and the functions, the development of which depends on it in the first place.

Let us consider the principle of relative assessment of a partial defect from the point of view of its delimitation from a total defect.

In the practice of special education for children with analyzer deficiencies, separate schools were allocated for children who are deaf and hard of hearing, blind and visually impaired. In this regard, the need arose to determine a partial defect in its fundamental difference from a total one. In schools for the deaf, not only children who are completely deaf study, but also children with some hearing impairments; In schools for the blind, not only the completely blind study, but also those with some visual impairments. And as practice shows, some deaf people with hearing impairments in school do not do better than completely deaf people, and some blind people with residual vision learn, as well as completely blind people. And at the same time, with a different degree of residual vision and residual hearing, children require completely different learning conditions. Here the problem arises of distinguishing between groups of children with varying degrees of residual function of the analyzers. Such a distinction can be realized only taking into account the qualitative uniqueness that arises in the development of the child with a certain degree of partial insufficiency of the analyzer.

To determine the boundary at the level of which a new quality can arise in development, it is necessary, first of all, to take into account the possibility of the development of functions that depend on the analyzer of interest to us.

Let us clarify this situation using the example of an auditory analyzer.

Research has shown that the criterion for assessing hearing impairment, proposed to distinguish partial deficiency from the conditional norm, can also be adopted to distinguish a partial defect from a total... Recall that when it comes to hearing impairment in a child, a partial hearing impairment should be assessed not only in terms of the possibility of using hearing in communication, but mainly in terms of the possibilities of speech development in a given hearing state.

Focusing on this criterion for assessing hearing impairment, through a specially organized study, it was possible to solve the problem of differentiating deafness from partial hearing impairment for the purpose of differentiated learning. The category of the hearing impaired, in contrast to the deaf, includes children for whom residual hearing helps at least to the smallest degree to master speech, to accumulate vocabulary on their own.

Obviously, in order to distinguish the blind from the visually impaired, it is also necessary to determine the criterion arising from the role of the visual analyzer in the development of the child. It is possible that the criterion here will be the state of visual representations, the nature of orientation in space.

So, the first principle we put forward for considering the abnormal development of a child with a partial analyzer defect can be formulated as follows. The criterion for assessing the defect of the analyzer in a child from the point of view of special pedagogy is the possibility of developing a function depending on the affected analyzer with a given degree of its insufficiency.

The second important regularity, established when studying the children of interest to us, concerns the variability of the partially preserved functions of the analyzer, depending on the conditions of its use.

It is known that analyzers generally function not without regard to the conditions in which this activity is realized, and this relativity of functioning acquires a completely exclusive role in the event of its partial failure.

Studies of speech perception in children with partial hearing impairment demonstrate different possibilities of using residual hearing, depending on different conditions of presentation of the material. Experiments show that under the conditions of a prompting situation, the possibilities of speech perception far exceed the limits of tones and noises objectively accessible to the child's hearing aid.

It is shown, for example, that a child who does not distinguish between sounds s and w in meaningless syllables distinguishes words in which these sounds play a meaningful role, if these words are presented in a meaningful context.

It is possible to create a wide variety of prompting situations that will make words comprehensible, only partially consisting of sounds accessible to the hearing of the studied child. The relativity of speech perception with partial hearing impairment constantly manifests itself in the life of a child with such a defect. The more situations favorable to the perception, the richer the child's perception, the more favorable the conditions for his development are.

It goes without saying that guessing words without fully comprehending them is possible only if the child is presented with speech material known to him. Hence, as the child's speech develops, the possibilities of using his defective auditory analyzer continuously increase. And in this, the natural relativity of the activity of a partially disturbed analyzer is most clearly manifested.

It seems possible from this point of view to consider not only children with partial hearing impairment, but also visually impaired children, in whose partial defect the relative possibilities of using it should also appear, depending on the prompting situation and the level of development of visual representations. And for the visually impaired, as well as for the hearing impaired, there are more or less favorable conditions for using a partially preserved analyzer. When assessing the partial safety of the analyzer, it is necessary to take into account not only the degree, but also the qualitative originality of the primary defect in each of the children.

Until now, in the practice of determining a partial disturbance of the analyzer in children, it is customary to take into account only the degree of residual function. There is a constant tendency to make only a quantitative measurement of the primary defect. Meanwhile, often only a qualitative analysis of the residual function can explain cases of misinterpretation of secondary symptoms observed in a child. Let us show this by the example of children with hearing impairment.

In the study of hearing in deaf and hard of hearing children, facts are observed that force us to pay attention to uneven hearing impairment in relation to different tones. In some children, a special retraction of the auditory function to high-frequency tones is found with a relatively high preservation of hearing to low sounds. In these cases, the ability to respond to a loud voice is often observed, and sometimes to distinguish, with a relatively small amplification, the number of syllables in a word or even to distinguish the vowels that make up these syllables. At the same time, such children may lack the ability to distinguish consonants at all; in this regard, the child is completely deprived of the opportunity to independently acquire the sound composition of a word with the help of hearing. Such, in fact, deaf, child, having learned to speak under the conditions of special education, has the opportunity in a particularly favorable situation to distinguish with his hearing some words along their contours.

In other children, hearing for high sounds turns out to be somewhat more intact. These children better than other hearing-impaired children perceive whispering speech, distinguish phonemes with a high formant and due to this they more accurately reproduce words with high sounding, their speech sounds more intelligible; they have a large vocabulary of independently acquired words, although when quantifying their hearing impairment, they are assessed as children with a severe hearing impairment. When organizing special education for such children, it is especially important to take into account the qualitative characteristics of their primary defect in order to use hearing for mastering pronunciation.

We have given here only a few examples of possible qualitative variants of residual hearing. A qualitative assessment of the child's hearing impairment is of exceptional importance for the analysis of the phenomena observed in the child, and, consequently, for the correct organization of corrective education.

The qualitative uniqueness of partial defects of the visual analyzer is of no less importance for considering the manifestations of abnormal development. Visual impairment manifests itself either in the form of an anomaly of refraction, when one or another degree of myopia or farsightedness occurs, then in the form of a limitation of the field of vision or changes in color perception.

Violation of central vision in some cases of partial visual failure and peripheral - in others, creates a variety of conditions for the perception of surrounding objects.

The preservation of color perception plays a significant role in the development of the child; his violation impoverishes the world of his ideas. The variety of distorted perception of surrounding objects creates an exceptional variety of conditions for the development of children with partial visual impairment.

Similarly, a child with a coloboma of the choroid and retina (a congenital defect in the retina and choroid, most often located inside and downward) can only see an object with the help of the upper parts of his eyes. With such a perception, distorted ideas appear in the child from early childhood. This can lead to a kind of mental retardation.

The development of a child suffering from an anomaly of refraction, which most often, in one way or another, can be corrected with glasses, will proceed in a completely different way. The fact that the state of vision often changes with age complicates the diagnosis of the abnormal development of a visually impaired child even more.

By analogy with the assessment of defects in the auditory analyzer, attention should be paid to the different role of qualitative signs of visual impairment in adults as opposed to children. To use a visual analyzer for the mental development of a child, no doubt the quality of the functioning of this analyzer should matter. And in fact, we see visually impaired children in school with the same visual acuity, some of whom assimilate, while others do not assimilate the program material. In some cases, a qualitative analysis of the primary impairment may explain the cause of these different academic performance.

Thus, to analyze the abnormal development of a child with a partial defect in the analyzer, not only a quantitative measurement of the primary defect is necessary, but also its qualitative analysis.

The most important fundamental requirement for the analysis of anomalous development concerns the question of the qualitative uniqueness of the secondary deviations observed with a partial defect. It is as follows: deviations in the development of a child, in whom one or another analyzer has suffered partially, not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively different from those deviations that arise when one or another analyzer is completely missing.

At first glance, it may seem that development under conditions of a partial defect differs only quantitatively from development under conditions of a total defect. Meanwhile, studies show that there are profound qualitative differences. This is understandable if we take into account the fact that with a partial defect, the function dependent on it develops under conditions of partial safety of the affected analyzer, which leads to a distorted development of the mental function that depends on this analyzer... So, for example, if the hearing is partially preserved, the child's speech is not just poor. It is distinguished by special distortions, which depend on the fact that the child perceives the speech of others in an incorrect, distorted form. So, with a total hearing defect, there are no independently learned words at all, with a partial defect, there are few of them, and independently acquired words are distorted.

Similarly, in children with partial visual impairment, under certain conditions, it can be found not only a limited supply of representations, but distorted representations may also occur, which arise as a result of the use of partially preserved, but at the same time defective perception.

Distorted development of functions dependent on the affected analyzer will always push special peculiar requirements for special pedagogical influence on a child with a partial defect.

So, with partial auditory failure, it becomes necessary to enrich the secondary underdeveloped functions and create conditions under which it is possible to continuously correct the distorted skills that have arisen in the development process. This is achieved: a) by enhancing the residual function of the affected auditory analyzer; b) by using all kinds of devices that increase the role of compensating analyzers.

So, for example, to correct distortions in pronunciation that occur when the auditory analyzer is partially preserved, sound amplifying equipment is used; early literacy training is carried out in order to use the visual analyzer to refine pronunciation. To correct distorted speech skills, special exercises are introduced, with the help of which the sound composition of the word is clarified. Various techniques are used to stimulate the development and use of the child's personal qualities to combat his own deficiency. For this, the school creates conditions that develop the student's need to actively fight their own speech defects; conditions are created in the team that stimulate the need for as clear pronunciation as possible (communication with normal hearing children, organizing a competition for the best speech, talking on the phone), etc. The presence of distorted ideas in visually impaired children, obviously, also requires special attention when organizing the pedagogical process. From this point of view, special visual aids developed by typhlopedagogues play an exceptional role.

The next position, also common for the analysis of partial defects of any analyzer, is related to the question of the degree of secondary deviations, depending on the degree of the primary defect. This provision can be formulated as follows: the degree of secondary deviations, their nature with a partial defect, is diverse not only depending on the degree of the primary defect, but to an even greater extent depending on the conditions in which the child's development proceeds... The interaction of various developmental conditions with a partial defect of the analyzer is incomparably more complicated than with its total loss.

Take, for example, the time factor of abnormal development. The early occurrence of total hearing impairment determines the most severe impairment of the function dependent on this analyzer. It leads to a complete lack of speech. With a partial defect, we never have such an unambiguous influence of the age factor. Under some conditions, with the early onset of a partial defect, speech does not develop for a very long time and gives a very sharp picture of distorted development, in others, the process of abnormal development proceeds more benignly. Everything here depends on a complex interweaving of factors that determine the possibilities of speech development. On the one hand, there is a different degree of an auditory defect and its qualitative characteristics, on the other, a different time of occurrence, on the third, there are pedagogical conditions, then individual characteristics, intellectual, personal, etc. Taking into account this complex interweaving of development factors is a mandatory requirement when analyzing the development of a child with a partial defect in the analyzer. Only if this complex interweaving of factors is taken into account, it is possible to understand the exceptional variety of abnormal development of mental function, the development of which depends on the given partially affected analyzer.

The child's adaptation to a partial defect is a very complex integral process, partly similar to a similar process in a total defect, but having its own unconditional originality. This fixture is made up of basically the same components that were mentioned in the general section. However, the following should be pointed out here.

The use of the analyzer's residual function naturally plays a certain role in this device. The limits of the possibilities of its use, as we have already seen above, are very diverse and depend on a number of other conditions. Of great importance is the fact that the possibilities of its use in the learning process are continuously growing due to the development of a function that depends on the affected analyzer. In the process of learning, hearing impaired children increase their speech abilities and, in this regard, the conditions for using the impaired hearing improve. Hearing impaired children have a similar complex process of mastering visual representations in conditions when defective visual images are supplemented by tactile ones, with the obligatory participation of mental operations.

In this process, the interaction of analyzers, based on the conscious thought process, plays a special role.

Speech with its cognitive function plays an absolutely exclusive role in this adaptation. With a partial defect in the auditory analyzer, the compensating role of speech increases in the process of special education. With a partial violation of the visual analyzer, the compensating role of speech is so great that even with a very significant decrease in vision, normal development of intelligence can occur.

The effect of the child's adaptation to the conditions resulting from a partial defect also depends on his individual characteristics. The more the child has preserved cognitive capabilities, the higher the effect of adaptation. Good visual orientation helps compensate for the auditory defect. General sharpness, agility thought processes play big role in the adaptation of the child to a partial defect.

The personal qualities of the child play a special role in this adaptation. Interest and a positive emotional focus on the world around them contribute to a more effective adaptation to the defect. The most important role in this adaptation is played by the ability for voluntary activity. A child who is able not only to hear directly, but also to specifically listen, naturally develops in a different way. The observations of teachers have repeatedly shown how great the importance of an active personal reaction for mastering speech by a hearing impaired child.

The same applies to the visually impaired child who is able to peer. Well-developed speech, full-fledged auditory and motor analyzers, general sharpness, good ability to generalize and transfer, own activity, affective preservation determine the effect of adaptation of a visually impaired child to a defect.

When analyzing the adaptation to a partial defect of the analyzer, the question arises of the possibility of an adequate assessment by the child of his own defect. Observations show that, unlike a total defect, a partial defect is usually not sufficiently recognized. Here we, as a rule, are faced with a phenomenon that in the clinic is usually called anosognosia (this term implies the impossibility of realizing one's defects).

It is known that adults with partial hearing loss often claim that they only occasionally fail to hear. Meanwhile, objectively, the situation is different. They always misheard in the same way. But in some cases, the situation tells them the fact of insufficient perception, in other cases - no. Characteristically, hearing impaired students who have learned to read from lips are confident that they can already hear. In all this, the already mentioned relative possibilities of using (depending on the conditions of perception) of a partial analyzer play a role. For adaptation to a defect, these circumstances are essential.

Burklen, K. Psychology of the Blind [Text] / K. Burklen. - M., Uchpedgiz, 1934 .-- 144 p.

Vygotsky, L.S. Selected psychological research [Text] / L.S. Vygotsky. - M., ed. APN RSFSR, 1956.

Zemtsova, M.I. Ways to compensate for blindness in the process of cognitive and labor activity [Text] / M.I. Zemtsov. - M .: Iz-in APN RSFSR, 1956. - 420 p., With ill.

Kostyuchok, N.S. Representations, speech, thinking of pupils of I-III grades of the school of the blind [Text] / N. S. Kostyuchok. - Izvestiya APN RSFSR. - Issue. 96 .-- 1959.

Levin, R.E. Violation of writing in children with speech underdevelopment [Text] / R.E. Levin. - M., 1961 .-- 310 p.

On the mental development of deaf and normally hearing children [Text] / Ed. I. M. Solovyova. - M .: publishing house. APN RSFSR, 1962.

Fundamentals of training and education of abnormal children [Text] / edited by prof. A.I. Dyachkova. - M .; Education, 1965 .-- 343 p.

Features of the cognitive activity of students of the auxiliary school. Psychological essays [Text] / Ed. THEM. Solovyov. - M .: publishing house APN RSFSR, 1953.

Abnormal development- this is a significant deviation from the conditionally age norms of physical and mental development caused by serious congenital or acquired defects and necessitating the social conditions of education, training, and life.

Norm- this is the level of psychosocial development of a person, which corresponds to the average qualitative and quantitative indicators obtained during the examination of the presented group of the population of the same age, gender, culture, etc.

Dysontogenesis- these are various forms of disorders of ontogenesis, including postnatal, mainly early period, limited by those terms of development when the morphological systems of the organism have not yet reached maturity. The term "dysontogenia" was first introduced by J. Schwalbe to denote the deviation of the intrauterine formation of body structures from normal development.

Mental dysontogenesis- this is a violation of the development of the psyche as a whole or its individual components, a violation of the pace and timing of the development of individual spheres of the psyche and their components.

The term "dysontogenia" was introduced by representatives of clinical medicine to designate various forms of impairment of normal ontogenesis that occur in childhoodwhen the morphofunctional systems of the body have not yet reached maturity.

For the most part, these are so-called non-progressive morbid conditions, a kind of developmental defects, obeying the same laws as normal development, but representing its pathological modification, which impedes the full-fledged psychosocial development of a child without an appropriate special psychological and pedagogical, and in some cases medical help.

The term "dysontogenia" was first introduced by J. Schwalbe in 1927 to denote the deviation of the intrauterine formation of body structures from normal development. Accordingly, the term “developmental anomalies” was adopted for a long time in Russian defectology, and now in special pedagogy and special psychology. At the time of the emergence of defectology, the term “handicapped children” was used. At present, in connection with the transition from subject-object pedagogy to subject-subject pedagogy, focusing primarily on the individual trend of the child's development, the world is looking for the most humane terminology in relation to children with certain developmental deficiencies. These are widespread, but very vague terms: "children at risk", "children with special needs", "children with specific educational needs", "poorly adapted children", "children with special rights" - and are beginning to be used in domestic official documents the term "children with disabilities health ". In addition, both in domestic and international documents aimed primarily at creating equal opportunities for the development and education of children with various disabilities, the term "disabled" is used.

In accordance with the views of clinicians G.E. Sukhareva and M.S. Pevzner, as well as modern research in the field of neuropsychology (V.V. Lebedinsky, E.G. Simernitskaya, A.V. Semenovich and others), it is advisable to consider the following factors affecting the type of dysontogenia that a child has:

1) time and duration of exposure to damaging agents (age-related dysontogenia). In the course of the child's individual development, there is a constant struggle between the immaturity of his structures and the fund for growth or development. Depending on the predominance of the first or second factor under the same conditions, in some cases more stable pathological changes can be expected, and in others - lighter and more susceptible to correctional-pedagogical influence (L. S. Vygotsky, G. E. Sukhareva, G. . Gelnits). The most vulnerable periods of childhood are the period of "primary immaturity" of the body in the period up to three years, as well as the period of restructuring of the body during puberty, when the already harmoniously formed systems of the child's body again lose their state of balance, rebuilding to "adult" functioning. The most gross underdevelopment of mental functions occurs as a result of the impact of damaging hazards. in the early stages of embryogenesis, in the first third of pregnancy.

During preschool and primary school age (3 - 11 years old) children's organism is a system that is more resistant to persistent irreversible deviations.

Each age leaves its mark on the nature of the response in case of pathogenic exposure. These are the so-called levels of neuropsychic response of children and adolescents to various pathogenic influences: somato-vegetative (from 0 to 3 years) - gastrointestinal disorders, fever, psychomotor (4 - 7 years old) - psychomotor irritability, tics, stuttering, fears, affective (7-12 years old) - from pronounced autism to affective excitability with the phenomena of negativism, aggression, neurotic reactions, emotionally ideational (12–16 years old) - pathological fantasizing, overvalued hobbies and ideas;

2) their etiology. Under etiology understand not only the reasons for the occurrence of certain violations, but also the conditions that contribute to their occurrence. So, exogenous harmfulness, depending on the hereditary predisposition, which determines the sensitivity of brain structures to certain influences, can lead to deviations in development of different severity. The overlap of different influences in time also leads to unequal end results. Among the causes of deterioration in the mental health of children, in the first place is the lesion of the central nervous system of varying severity, in the second - chronic somatic diseases;

3) the prevalence of the disease process - locality or consistency of pathogenic impact. An essential condition for the severity of a particular pathology is the intensity of exposure. The latter is also associated with the prevalence of the disease process, the nature of sensory or intellectual disorders.

It is customary to refer to the local forms of deviating development as defects of individual analytical systems: vision, hearing, speech and motor spheres. Systemic disorders of varying severity include intellectual defects - mental retardation and mental retardation.

4) the degree of violation of interfunctional relationships The developmental delay is never uniform: with general damage to the nervous system, the first and most often affected are those functions that are at that time in the sensitive period and, therefore, have the greatest instability and vulnerability, then the functions associated with the damaged one. The more severe the damage to the nervous system, the more persistent the phenomenon of regression and the more likely the phenomenon of decay. Therefore, the profile of the mental development of an abnormal child will often consist of intact, damaged and, to varying degrees, retarded mental functions in their formation.

G. E. Sukhareva (1959) distinguishes three types of mental dysontogenesis from the standpoint of the pathogenesis of personality development disorders: delayed, damaged and distorted development.
L. Kanner (1955) - underdevelopment and distorted development. Clinically close to the classifications of L. Kanner and G.E.Sukhareva is the classification of mental development disorders proposed J. Lutz (1968), which distinguishes five types of mental development disorders:

· Disharmonious development with psychopathy;

· Regressive development - with progressive degenerative diseases, malignant epilepsy;

Alternating development, including states of asynchrony both in the form of retardation and acceleration and observed, in the author's opinion, with very different somatic and mental pathology;

· Development, altered in quality and direction, observed in the schizophrenic process.

In the opinion G. K. Ushakova (1973) and V. V. Kovaleva (1979), the main clinical types of mental dysontogenesis are two:
1) retardation, i.e. slowing down or persistent mental underdevelopment, both general and partial;
2) asynchrony as an uneven, disharmonious development, including signs of retardation and acceleration.

According to Lebedinsky, six types of dysontogenesis are distinguished.

1. general underdevelopment - total underdevelopment of all functions (mental retardation acquired by the MA)

2. delayed mental development - slowing down the pace of the developed psyche. It is expressed in the lack of a general stock of knowledge, immaturity of thinking, emotions of the sphere, the prevalence of game interests.

3. impaired mental development associated with previous infections or injuries. Unlike general underdevelopment, there is a long period of normal development here, then, as a result of pathogenic effects, the formed functions disintegrate, regress, however, disorders of mental functions are narrative (dimension acquired after three years of UO)

4. deficit development - associated with the primary insufficiency of individual analyzing systems - vision, hearing, ODA. The primary defect leads to the underdevelopment of the functions associated with them most closely and to a slowdown in the development of a number of other functions associated with the victim indirectly.

5. distorted development - a complex combination of the general underdevelopment of the detained, damaged and accelerated development of individual mental functions, leading to a number of qualitatively new pathological formations that are not inherent in each of the clinical picture due to impaired development (RDA).

6. disharmonious development - in structure it resembles a distorted one, but here the reason is not the current painful process, but the congenital or early acquired persistent disproportionality of the psyche, mainly in EMU (psychopathy).