Diagnosis screening what. The importance of screening laboratory tests in the work of a modern doctor

Screening is the identification of signs of the disease, before you feel any changes in your own condition, that is, objective symptoms appear. Screening - main way detecting breast cancer on early stageswhen treatment has a favorable prognosis. Depending on your age and the presence of risk factors, screening may consist of a self-examination of your breasts, an examination during a regular visit to the doctor, mammography, etc.

Breast self-examination

It is necessary to begin to conduct an independent examination of the gland at the age of 20. Then you get used to the usual appearance and the consistency of your breasts, you will be able to detect changes in it at an early stage. If you find changes in your breasts, see your doctor as soon as possible. During your visit to the doctor, pay his attention to these changes, and also show the doctor your self-examination technique, ask any questions that interest you.

Medical examination

During the exam, the doctor will examine both breasts to look for nodules or other changes. It can detect changes that you missed on your self-examination. He will also examine the axillary lymph nodes.

Mammography

This test is a series of x-rays of the gland and is currently the best test method for detecting small tumors that cannot be detected by palpation by a doctor.

There are two types of this study.

General / screening images. Performed regularly, once a year, they can be useful for detecting changes in hardware since the last snapshot.

Diagnostic snapshot. Performed to evaluate changes that you or your doctor find. For good rendering, it may be necessary to take several shots, including sighting shots of the suspicious area.

But mammography is not perfect. Some percentage cancerous tumors is not visible on x-rays, and sometimes they can even be detected by hand on palpation, but, nevertheless, are invisible on x-rays. This is called a false negative. The percentage of such tumors is higher in women aged 40-50 years: the breasts of women of this age are denser and nodular formations can be distinguished in the picture against a background of more thick fabric the glands are more complicated.

On the other hand, on mammograms, you can see changes that look like a cancerous tumor, when in fact there is none, this is called false positive results. Such errors lead to unnecessary biopsies, patient distress, and increased costs for medical institutions. The experience of the radiologist significantly affects the accuracy of the description of mammograms. But despite some of the shortcomings of mammography as a screening method, most experts agree that it is the most reliable method for screening breast cancer in women.

During a mammogram, your breasts are placed between special plastic plates to keep them still during the scan. The whole procedure takes less than 30 seconds. Having a mammogram is usually not uncomfortable, but if something bothers you, notify the x-ray technician who performs the x-ray.

When scheduling your yearly mammogram and doctor's appointment, first visit your doctor so that he can detect suspicious areas in the chest during examination and write a referral to the radiologist in order to take a targeted X-ray.

Other screening methods

Mammography with Computer-Aided Detection (CAD).

In traditional mammography, your images are reviewed and described by a radiologist, whose experience and qualifications mainly determine the accuracy of the diagnosis, in particular, the number of cases of small tumors that are missed on the images. In our case, the doctor is asked to begin by pointing out the areas suspicious, in his opinion, to the program, after which the program extracts additional areas suspicious from its point of view. Of course, the program can never replace the intelligence of a doctor, but the joint work of humans and computers can increase the number of breast tumors recognized at the earliest stages.

Digital mammography.

It fundamentally differs from traditional mammography in the way of storing X-ray images. The picture is recorded from the very beginning with a digital detector (like a digital photograph, without film) and later the doctor gets the opportunity to change the brightness of the image, to increase its individual areas. Digital images can be transferred over long distances, for example, from a province to a large center, for consultation with a specialist. Digital mammography is most relevant for women 40-50 years old, since their breasts are denser, and the ability to change the brightness of the image is in great demand.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

This research method allows obtaining an image of the entire mass of the breast, making virtual layer-by-layer sections. In this case, instead of X-rays, a powerful magnetic field and a radio signal are used, in other words, this study does not give radiation exposure. MRI is not used for mass screening for breast cancer, but it can be used to examine suspicious areas that are inaccessible to palpation due to their small size and poorly visible on traditional mammograms. MRI does not replace, but complements traditional mammography.

MRI is not indicated for breast cancer streaming screening due to the high number of false positives, which leads to unnecessary biopsies and patient distress. This study is high-tech and expensive, the images require decoding by an experienced radiologist.

According to the latest guidelines, MRI should be performed on all women newly diagnosed with breast cancer. This can reveal the simultaneous presence of an additional tumor in the same gland or in a second breast not found on mammograms. However, there is no reliable data yet whether such a study reduces breast cancer mortality.

Ultrasound of the breast.

The method is used to further evaluate suspicious lesions visible on mammograms or on examination. To obtain an ultrasound image, high-frequency sound waves are used, that is, this study, like MRI, does not give radiation exposure. Ultrasound allows you to reliably distinguish volumetric formations - cysts, that is, cavities with fluid, from nodes consisting of dense tissue. Breast ultrasound is not used for cancer screening due to the large number false positives - the appearance of a disease is created where it is not.

New screening methods

Duct lavage

The doctor inserts a thin flexible tube, a catheter, into the external opening of the excretory duct of the mammary glands, located on the nipple, through which he first introduces a special solution, and then receives a suspension of cells, among which there may be atypical, cancerous ones. Most breast cancers begin their growth precisely from the lumen of the ducts of the glands, and indeed: atypical cells can be found in lavage long before the first signs of a tumor appear on mammograms.

However, this method is a new and invasive intervention, for which the percentage of false negative results has not been fully determined, and the relationship between the detection of cancer cells in lavage and the development of breast cancer has not been fully investigated. Until these questions are answered, ductal lavage cannot be recommended as a mass screening method.

Breast scintigraphy

New technology for detecting the smallest tumors in the mammary glands. You are injected intravenously with a special substance, an isotope radiopharmaceutical, which is distributed throughout the body and accumulates in the breast tissue. Recent studies have shown that this method can help identify small tumors that were missed by mammography and ultrasound.

Taking a biopsy from a suspicious lesion detected by this method presents problems, but research is underway in this direction.

This study gives a small radiation load on the body; for the study, breast compression is necessary, as with mammography. The study of the new method involves women with dense breasts (since mammography is not effective enough for them) and women at high risk of developing breast cancer. Depending on the results of the study, the place of this diagnostic method in a number of methods will be determined early diagnosis breast cancer. The method is likely to complement conventional mammography.

This is a minimal set of medical research aimed at detecting diseases at an early stage, as well as identifying risk factors that contribute to the onset of diseases.

Screening is called medical checkup healthy people of any age, regardless of gender, for the timely diagnosis of the most common diseases.

5 reasons to get tested!

Forewarned is forearmed.
1. A full range of examinations in one place in 2 hours.
- 1 hour- 1st day in the morning for tests and ultrasound, instrumental research.
- 1 hour- 2nd day for examination and consultation with a specialist doctor, according to research results, in the time which is convenient for you.
2. An individual approach to each patient.
3. Early detection and prevention of disease.
4. Saving treatment costs in the future (do not start the disease).
5. Gaining confidence in yourself and in the future (to be checked and calm down).

* when undergoing a periodic (preliminary) medical examination OR when undergoing several screenings - the discount is 850 rubles from EACH screening.

What do you get after completing the program?
- Passport of health with an assessment of the state of your body.
- Recommendations of doctors for further observation.

Any disease is easier to prevent than to cure!

Diagnostics "Men's health"

For men after forty years of age, an annual examination of the condition of the prostate should be a mandatory rule. And the older the man, the more important this analysis becomes. By the age of fifty, more than 50% of the male population has already experienced prostatitis. And prostate cancer is the second most fatal cancer.

Diagnostics "Men's health" - a minimum set of studies, because prostate diseases detected at early stages are successfully cured, and modern methods therapies prevent relapse.

Diagnostics "Women's health"


According to statistics, the wrong way of life, poor ecology and, oddly enough, progress became the "culprits" of the fact that dangerous diseases began to "grow younger", claiming the lives of women who were not even middle-aged. And one of the most frequent reasons mortality in women of childbearing age doctors call breast cancer and cervical cancer. The danger of these diseases is in their asymptomatic course. That is why regular preventive oncological examinations by a gynecologist are so important for all girls and women of any age without exception!

Diagnostics "Women's health" - the minimum complex of studies, because not only depends on the state of the female reproductive system reproductive function the female body, but also the functioning of the female body as a whole, the appearance of a woman, the emotional state, success in life.

Cardiovascular diseases are considered the most common causes of death today. According to estimates in 2008 from diseases of cardio-vascular system died 17.3 million people in the world (30% of all deaths). By 2030, an estimated 23.6 million people are projected to die from CVD, mainly heart disease and stroke, which by then will be the leading causes of death in the population.

Diagnostics "Assessment of the risk of developing diseases of the cardiovascular system"- calculation of the likelihood of developing cardiovascular diseases, which can lead to death within 10 years, in order to form the correct strategy for the treatment and / or prevention of heart diseases and their complications.

1st day morning - tests, ultrasound, instrumental examinations and consultation with an ophthalmologist.

Diagnostics of the "Digestive system"

Statistics say that at least 90% of the adult population in one way or another needs regular monitoring by a gastroenterologist. Symptoms of gastrointestinal diseases are very diverse and directly depend on which organ is affected.

Causes of diseases digestive system multiply and directly depend on lifestyle, diet, habits, emotional state - the list is endless.

Diagnostics of "Diseases of the digestive system"- a minimum set of studies to exclude serious problems of the digestive system for early diagnosis of diseases and timely treatment.

1st day morning - tests and ultrasound.

2nd day - consultation of a surgeon and a general practitioner based on the research results at a convenient time for you.

People who have smoked at least a pack of cigarettes a day for thirty years should be screened for lung cancer.

About 80% of patients with lung cancer at the time of diagnosis, they have a locally advanced stage of the process or distant metastases. Lung cancer is fatal in over 90% of cases. At the same time, the 5-year survival rate after treatment of stage I lung cancer is 70%, and stage IV is less than 5%. Consequently, early diagnosis of the disease improves treatment outcomes and reduces deaths.

Respiratory system diagnostics - a minimum set of studies to exclude serious problems of the respiratory system for early diagnosis of diseases and timely treatment.

1st day morning - tests and instrumental examinations.

2nd day - consultation of a general practitioner based on research results at a convenient time for you.

Diagnostics of the "Urinary system"

The human urinary system is a series of organs that are necessary for the normal functioning of all systems. Performs excretory, osmoregulatory, metabolic and some other functions. Often, under the influence of endogenous and exogenous factors, kidney disease and urinary tractnegatively affecting the functioning of the whole organism. The most common pathologies include pyelonephritis, cystitis, renal colic, urolithiasis, renal failure.

Diagnostics of the "Urinary system" - a minimum set of studies to exclude serious problems of the urinary system for early diagnosis of diseases and timely treatment.

1st day morning - tests and ultrasound.

2nd day - consultation of a general practitioner based on research results at a convenient time for you.

Diagnostics of "Diseases thyroid gland»

Diseases of the thyroid gland in terms of frequency of distribution are in third place after cardiovascular pathologies and diabetes mellitus... Dysfunctions of this organ negatively affect the metabolism, the state of the cardiovascular, reproductive and nervous system, affect body weight, general well-being and cause somatic diseases.

Diagnostics of "Diseases of the thyroid gland" - a minimum set of studies to exclude serious thyroid problems for early diagnosis of diseases and timely treatment.

1st day morning - tests and ultrasound.

2nd day - consultation of a general practitioner based on research results at a convenient time for you.

Diagnosis of "Diabetes mellitus"

Diseases of the thyroid gland in terms of frequency of distribution are in third place after cardiovascular pathologies and diabetes mellitus. Dysfunctions of this organ negatively affect the metabolism, the state of the cardiovascular, reproductive and nervous systems, affect body weight, general well-being, and cause somatic diseases.

Diagnostics of "Diseases of the thyroid gland" - a minimum set of studies to exclude serious problems of the thyroid gland for early diagnosis of diseases and timely treatment.

1st day morning - tests and ultrasound.
2nd day - consultation of a general practitioner based on research results at a convenient time for you.

It is carried out with a group of children and is aimed at identifying children who have a particular group of characteristics, assesses the constancy of certain psychological properties in this group of children.

2. In-depth psychological diagnostics , which is carried out after the selection of children who have any developmental features and need additional developmental or correctional work, that is, in special psychological assistance. As a rule, it is carried out individually or in small groups.

3. Dynamic examination , with the help of which the dynamics of development, the effectiveness of training, developmental and / or corrective measures are traced. It can be carried out several times during one correction course.

4. Final diagnosis . The purpose of this type of diagnosis is to assess the child's condition at the end of the course of correctional work.

DIAGNOSTIC PRINCIPLES

When carrying out any type of diagnosis, a teacher-psychologist of a preschool educational institution must observe the following principles:

- the complexity and versatility in the study of the child, the desire for maximum consideration in assessing the development of all his significant characteristics;

- the study of children in activities and relationships, through activities and relationships;

- pedagogical orientation: study, diagnosis not as an end in itself, but as a means that determines the direction of corrective assistance to a child in overcoming his problems;

- participation in the study and assessment of the development of the child of all involved in his fate and interested parties (parents, educators, teachers);

In order for the diagnostic results to be not distorted, the teacher-psychologist needs to take into account:

- physical development and condition of the child;

- psychophysiological features of his age;

- the dynamics of physical development (anamnesis);

- the state of hearing, vision;

- features of the development of the motor sphere;

- violations of general motor skills (general tension or lethargy, inaccuracy of movements; paralysis, paresis, the presence of their residual effects);

- coordination of movements (features of gait, gestures, difficulty, if necessary, to maintain balance, difficulties in regulating the pace of movements, the presence of hyperkinesis, synkinesis, obsessive movements);

- features of working capacity (fatigue, exhaustion, absent-mindedness, satiety, switchability, perseverance, pace of work; an increase in the number of errors by the end of the lesson or with monotonous activities; complaints of headache).

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Research methods can be considered based on four main positions:

a) non-experimental psychological methods;

b) diagnostic methods;

c) experimental methods;

d) formative methods.

Currently, a large number of diagnostic methods have been developed, but not all of them are applicable to preschool children. The most acceptable are: observation, conversation, experiment, survey.

Non-experimental methods:

Observation is one of the most commonly used research methods. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of products of activity, various types of experiments, etc.

Observation and introspection is called purposeful, organized perception and registration of an object and is the oldest psychological method.

Observation can be carried out directly, or with the use of observational instruments and means of recording results. These include: audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc.

The fixation of observation results can be made during the observation process or delayed.

Observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without outside interference in a situation, when you need to get a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in full. Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the process of experimentation. The results of observation of the subjects in the course of their performance of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.

Questionnaire , like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. The survey is usually conducted using observational data, which (along with data obtained using other research methods) are used in the compilation of the questionnaires.

There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:

Are questionnaires composed of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects.

These are scale questionnaires; When answering the questions of the questionnaire scales, the subject should not only choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but analyze (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers.

Conversation - one of the methods for the study of human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological characteristics of the other, is called a conversation method. Conversation can also be conducted with a group where the facilitator asks questions to the entire group and makes sure that the responses include the views of all members of the group, not just the most active.

Conversation can be more standardized or more free. In the first case, the conversation is conducted according to a strictly regulated program, with a strict sequence of presentation to clearly record the answers and it is relatively easy to process the results.

In the second case, the content of the question is not planned in advance. Communication flows more freely, broader, but this complicates the organization, conduct of the conversation and the processing of results. This form makes very high demands on the teacher.

There are also intermediate forms of conversation that try to combine the positive qualities of both of these types.

When preparing for a conversation, preliminary work is very important.

1. The moderator should carefully think over all aspects of the problem he is going to talk about, select the facts that he may need. Having a clear goal of the conversation helps you formulate clear questions and avoid random ones.

2. He must determine in what sequence he will raise topics or ask questions.

3. It is important to choose the right place and time for the conversation. It is necessary that there are no people nearby whose presence could embarrass, or, even worse, affect the sincerity of the interlocutor.

When conducting a conversation, especially a free one, you should adhere to the following recommendations:

1. Communication should be started with topics that are pleasant to the interlocutor, so that he willingly begins to speak.

2. Questions that may turn out to be unpleasant for the interlocutor or cause a feeling of verification should not be concentrated in one place, they should be evenly distributed throughout the conversation.

3. The question should cause discussion, development of thought.

4. Questions should take into account the age and individual characteristics of the interlocutor.

5. Sincere interest and respect for the opinion of the interlocutor, a benevolent attitude in a conversation, a desire to convince rather than force an agreement, attention, sympathy and participation are no less important than the ability to speak convincingly and reasonably. Modest and correct behavior inspires trust.

6. The teacher should be attentive and flexible in conversation, prefer indirect questions to direct ones, which are sometimes unpleasant to the interlocutor. A reluctance to answer a question must be met with respect, even if it leaves out important research information. If the question is very important, then during the conversation it can be asked again in a different formulation.

7. In terms of the effectiveness of the conversation, it is better to ask several small questions than one large one.

8. In conversation with pupils, indirect questions should be widely used. It is with their help that the educator can obtain information of interest to him about the hidden aspects of the child's life, about the unconscious motives of behavior, ideals.

9. In no case should you express yourself in a gray, banal or incorrect way, thus trying to get closer to the level of your interlocutor - this is shocking.

10. For greater reliability of the results of the conversation, the most important questions should be different forms repeat and thereby control previous answers, supplement, remove uncertainty.

11. One should not abuse the interlocutor's patience and time. The conversation should not last more than 30-40 minutes.

The undoubted advantages of the conversation include:

The presence of contact with the interlocutor, the ability to take into account his responses, evaluate his behavior, attitude to the content of the conversation, ask additional, clarifying questions. The conversation can be purely individual in nature, be flexible, maximally adapted to the pupil

An oral response takes less time than a written one.

The number of unanswered questions is noticeably reduced (in comparison with written methods).

Students take questions more seriously.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in a conversation we get not an objective fact, but a person's opinion. It may happen that he arbitrarily or involuntarily distorts the real state of affairs. In addition, the pupil, for example, often prefers to say what is expected of him.

Questionnaire.

The questionnaire is one of the most tested, practiced and mastered methods. But this diagnosis has one common disadvantage. It is exploited when the teacher does not take the trouble to creatively select methods for a specific pedagogical purpose, and with the help of a questionnaire they try to find out from the children themselves what is the measure of their upbringing. Therefore, teachers often resort to the simultaneous questioning of parents and children, and also take into account their own assessment.

The criterion for evaluating the questionnaire is the measure of detecting the directed interest of the child, his desires, aspirations, doubts and, as a result, personal problems of life, as well as the measure of spiritual help to the child: when the questionnaire, as a diagnosis, helps children to comprehend themselves in the world and gives rise to their positive activity, opening up for them a new aspect of life or a new value object.

Monographic method. This research method cannot be embodied in any one methodology. It is a synthetic method and is concretized in the aggregate of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) techniques. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, thorough study of age and individual characteristics.

Diagnostic methods.

Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e. methods that allow the researcher to give a quantitative qualification of the phenomenon under study, as well as various methods of qualitative diagnostics, with the help of which, for example, various levels of development of psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects are revealed.

Test - a standardized task, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject. Thus, the purpose of the test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator correlated with the previously established corresponding norms and standards.

The difference between diagnostic methods and non-experimental methods is that they not only describe the phenomenon under study, but also give this phenomenon a quantitative or qualitative qualification, measure it.

Diagnostic technique.

Pedagogical examination is aimed at determining the level of assimilation of program material by preschool pupils. The survey can be carried out both for the program as a whole, and for a section or subsection. Based on the data obtained, conclusions are drawn, a work strategy is built, strengths and weaknesses are identified, technologies for achieving the desired result, forms and ways of eliminating shortcomings are developed. Pedagogical examination is aimed at identifying the level of program material, achieving high results of its assimilation, correcting the forms, methods and methods of teaching pupils, the effectiveness of using pedagogical technologies.

The pedagogical examination is carried out twice a year: for the first half of the year - January, for the second in May (possibly the third at the beginning of the school year) Examination in all sections of the program, except for special (musical and physical) sections, is carried out by educators, the administration is present during the examination, helps with permission controversial issues, re-examination (if necessary).

The results of the survey are discussed at a joint meeting, the reasons for the insufficiently high level of mastering the program material for each task, subsection, section by each child are identified, further actions of teachers in working with pupils are outlined. The prepared analytical report is read out at the pedagogical council.

Diagnostics is of great importance for the purposeful and effective implementation of the educational process. It allows, through control (monitoring) and correction of the entire education and training system and its components, to improve the process of upbringing, training and development of children.

Stages of organizing diagnostic work.

Defining goals and setting goals, development guidelines for pedagogical diagnostics.

Development of criteria for assessing the levels of assimilation of program material.

Development of tasks for the examination of pupils.

Development of a plan for a diagnostic examination.

Preparation of material for diagnostics.

Development of the table - matrix "Results of the pedagogical examination"

Filling in the diagram of the dynamics of individual assimilation of the program material by each pupil (in comparison for two semesters).

Drawing up on the basis of the data obtained, an analytical reference for the assimilation of program material for this section.

The educational institution issues an order "On conducting pedagogical diagnostics", which indicates the goals of the conduct, the responsible, the timing.

At the end of the diagnostic examination and summarizing the results, an order "On the results of pedagogical diagnostics" is issued, which reflects the results, conclusions, recommendations, responsible persons, and the deadlines for eliminating deficiencies.

Specificity of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of younger students.

What is he like, a junior schoolchild who faces a difficult path of learning new things under the guidance of a teacher, whose interest in learning is to awaken the teacher?

Younger school age is a stage in the development of a child that corresponds to the period of study in primary school... The chronological boundaries of this age are different in different countries and in different historical conditions. These boundaries can be conditionally defined in the interval from 6-7 to 10-11 years, their clarification depends on the officially adopted terms of primary education.

A child's admission to school poses a number of tasks for the institution during the period of work with younger students:

to identify the level of his readiness for schooling and the individual characteristics of his activities, communication, behavior, mental processesthat will need to be taken into account during training;

if possible, compensate for possible gaps and increase school readiness, thereby to prevent school maladjustment;

to plan the strategy and tactics of teaching the future student, taking into account his individual capabilities.

The solution of these problems requires a deep study of the psychological characteristics of modern schoolchildren, who come to school with different "baggage", representing the totality of psychological new formations of the previous age stage - preschool childhood.

Each age stage is characterized by a special position of the child in the system of relations adopted in a given society. In accordance with this, the life of children of different ages is filled with specific content: special relationships with people around them and a special activity leading for this stage of development. I would like to note that L.S. Vygotsky identified the following types of leading activities:

babies - direct emotional communication;

early childhood - manipulative activity;

preschoolers - play activities;

junior schoolchildren - educational activities;

adolescents are socially recognized and socially approved activities;

high school students - educational and professional activities.

Going to school fundamentally changes the nature of a child's life. From the first days of schooling, the main contradiction arises - between the constantly growing requirements that are imposed on the personality of the child, his attention, memory, thinking, speech, and the current level of development. This contradiction is the driving force behind the development of the younger student. As the requirements increase, the level of mental development is pulled up to their level.

Younger school age is a qualitatively unique stage in a child's development. The development of higher mental functions and personality as a whole occurs within the framework of the leading activity at this stage (educational - according to the periodization of DB Elkonin), replacing in this capacity the play activity, which acted as the leading one in preschool age. The inclusion of the child in educational activities marks the beginning of the restructuring of all mental processes and functions.

Of course, it is far from immediately that the correct attitude towards learning is formed among younger students. They do not yet understand why they need to study. But it soon turns out that learning is work that requires volitional efforts, mobilization of attention, intellectual activity, and self-restraint. If the child is not used to this, then he is disappointed, there is a negative attitude towards learning. In order to prevent this from happening, the teacher must inspire the child with the idea that teaching is not a holiday, not a game, but serious, hard work, but very interesting, since it will allow you to learn a lot of new, entertaining, important, and necessary. It is important that the very organization of educational work reinforces the teacher's words.

At first, he develops an interest in the very process of educational activity without realizing its meaning. Only after the emergence of interest in the results of their educational work is formed an interest in the content of educational activities, in the acquisition of knowledge. It is this foundation that is a fertile ground for the formation of motives of the teaching of a high social order in the younger schoolchild, associated with a truly responsible attitude towards learning.

The formation of interest in the content of educational activities, the acquisition of knowledge is associated with the experience of schoolchildren with a sense of satisfaction from their achievements. And this feeling is reinforced by the approval, the praise of the teacher, who emphasizes every, even the smallest success, the smallest progress forward. Younger students feel a sense of pride, a special boost of strength, when the teacher praises them.

The great educational impact of the teacher on the younger is due to the fact that the teacher from the very beginning of the children’s stay in school becomes an indisputable authority for them. The credibility of the teacher is the most important prerequisite for teaching and education in the lower grades.

There is a functional improvement of the brain - the analytical-systematic function of the cortex develops; the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition is gradually changing: the process of inhibition becomes more and more powerful, although the process of excitation still predominates, and younger students are highly excitable and impulsive.

Learning activity in primary grades stimulates, first of all, the development of mental processes of direct cognition of the surrounding world - sensations and perceptions. Younger schoolchildren are distinguished by their sharpness and freshness of perception, a kind of contemplative curiosity.

The most characteristic feature of the perception of these students is its low differentiation, where inaccuracies and errors in differentiation are made when they perceive similar objects. The next feature of the perception of students at the beginning of primary school age is its close connection with the actions of the student. Perception at this level of mental development is associated with the child's practical activities. To perceive an object for a child means to do something with it, change something in it, perform any action, take it, touch it. A characteristic feature of students is a pronounced emotionality of perception.

In the process of learning, perception is restructured, it rises to a higher stage of development, takes on the character of purposeful and controlled activity. In the process of learning, perception deepens, becomes more analyzing, differentiating, takes on the character of organized observation.

Some age features are inherent in the attention of primary school students. The main one is the weakness of voluntary attention. The possibilities of volitional regulation of attention and control at the beginning of primary school age are limited. Arbitrary attention of a younger student requires the so-called close motivation. If older students maintain voluntary attention even in the presence of distant motivation (they can force themselves to focus on uninteresting and difficult work for the sake of the result that is expected in the future), then the younger student can usually force himself to work with concentration only if there is close motivation (the prospects for getting excellent grade, earn the praise of the teacher, do the best job, etc.).

Involuntary attention is much better developed in primary school age. Everything new, unexpected, bright, interesting naturally attracts the attention of students, without any effort on their part.

The age-related characteristics of memory in primary school age develop under the influence of learning. The role and proportion of verbal-logical, semantic memorization is enhanced and the ability to consciously manage your memory and regulate its manifestations develops. Due to the age relative predominance of the activity of the first signaling system younger schoolchildren have more developed visual-figurative memory than verbal-logical memory. They better, faster remember and more firmly retain in their memory specific information, events, persons, objects, facts than definitions, descriptions, explanations. Younger schoolchildren are prone to rote memorization without realizing the semantic connections within the memorized material.

The main trend in the development of imagination in primary school age is the improvement of the recreational imagination. It is associated with the presentation of previously perceived or the creation of images in accordance with a given description, scheme, drawing, etc. The re-creating imagination is improved due to more and more correct and complete reflection of reality. Creative imagination as the creation of new images associated with the transformation, processing of the impressions of past experience, combining them into new combinations, combinations, also develops.

Under the influence of learning, there is a gradual transition from cognition of the external side of phenomena to cognition of their essence. Thinking begins to reflect the essential properties and characteristics of objects and phenomena, which makes it possible to make the first generalizations, the first conclusions, draw the first analogies, build elementary inferences. On this basis, the child gradually begins to form elementary scientific concepts.

Analytical and synthetic activity at the beginning of primary school age is still very elementary, it is mainly at the stage of visual and effective analysis based on the direct perception of objects.

Younger school age is the age of a fairly noticeable personality formation. It is characterized by new relationships with adults and peers, inclusion in the whole system of collectives, inclusion in a new type of activity - teaching, which makes a number of serious requirements for the student. All this decisively affects the formation and consolidation of a new system of attitudes towards people, the team, towards learning and related responsibilities, forms character, will, expands the range of interests, develops abilities.

At the primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, moral norms and rules of behavior are assimilated, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form. The character of younger schoolchildren differs in some peculiarities. First of all, they are impulsive - they are inclined to act immediately under the influence of immediate impulses, motives, without thinking and without weighing all the circumstances, for random reasons. The reason is the need for active external discharge with age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior.

An age-related feature is a general lack of will: the younger schoolchild does not yet have much experience of a long struggle for the intended goal, overcoming difficulties and obstacles. He can give up in case of failure, lose faith in his strength and impossibility. Quite often capriciousness, stubbornness is observed. The usual reason for this is lack of family education. The child was accustomed to the fact that all his desires and requirements were satisfied, he saw no refusal in anything. Capriciousness and stubbornness is a peculiar form of a child's protest against the firm demands that school makes on him, against the need to sacrifice what he wants in the name of what is needed.

Younger students are very emotional. Emotionality is reflected, firstly, in the fact that their mental activity is usually colored by emotions. Everything that children observe, what they think about, what they do, evokes an emotionally colored attitude in them. Secondly, junior schoolchildren do not know how to restrain their feelings, control their external manifestation, they are very spontaneous and frank in expressing joy. Grief, sadness, fear, pleasure, or displeasure. Thirdly, emotionality is expressed in their great emotional instability, frequent mood swings, tendency to affect, short-term and violent manifestations of joy, grief, anger, fear. Over the years, the ability to regulate one's feelings, to restrain their unwanted manifestations, develops more and more.

The younger school age provides great opportunities for fostering collectivist relations. Over the course of several years, the junior schoolchild, with proper upbringing, accumulates experience of collective activity, important for his further development - activity in a team and for a team. The education of collectivism is helped by the participation of children in social, collective affairs. It is here that the child acquires the main experience of collective social activity.

Norm, types of norms.

The norm - in a number of sciences about living organisms, including about humans (medicine, biology, as well as sociology, etc.) is considered as a kind of reference point, a standard, a standard - for comparison with other options for the state of a living object (objects) (which can be considered as deviation, pathology).

A rule of law is a generally binding, formally defined rule of behavior established or sanctioned by the state, secured by its force, securing the rights and obligations of participants in public relations and being a criterion for assessing behavior, both legitimate and unlawful.

Social norms are understood as general rules and patterns, behavior of people in society, conditioned by social relations and resulting from the conscious activity of people ... Social norms are formed historically, naturally. In the process of their formation, being refracted through public consciousness, they are then fixed and reproduced in the relations and acts necessary for society. To one degree or another, social norms are mandatory for those to whom they are addressed, they have a certain procedural form of implementation and mechanisms for their implementation.

There are various classifications of social norms. The most important is the separation of social norms depending on the characteristics of their emergence and implementation. On this basis, there are five types of social norms: moral norms, customs, corporate norms, religious norms and legal norms.

Moral norms are rules of behavior that are derived from people's ideas about good and evil, about justice and not? Justice, about good and bad. The implementation of these norms is ensured by public opinion and the inner conviction of people.

The norms of customs are the rules of behavior that have become a habit as a result of their repeated repetition. The implementation of the usual norms is ensured by the force of habit. Customs of moral content are called morals. Traditions that express the desire of people to preserve certain ideas, values, and useful forms of behavior are considered a kind of customs. Another type of customs is rituals that regulate the behavior of people in the household, family and religious spheres.

Corporate code refers to the rules of conduct established by community organizations. Their implementation is ensured by the inner conviction of the members of these organizations, as well as by the public associations themselves.

Religious norms are understood as rules of conduct contained in various sacred books or established by the church. The implementation of this type of social norms is ensured by the inner convictions of people and the activities of the church.

Legal norms are the rules of conduct established or sanctioned by the state, the church new norms are the rights imposed or sanctioned by the state, and sometimes directly by the people, the implementation of which is ensured by the authority and coercive power of the state.

Different types of social norms did not appear at the same time, but one after the other, as necessary.

With the development of society, they became more and more complicated.

Scientists suggest that rituals were the first type of social norms that arose in primitive society? A ritual is a rule of behavior in which the most important thing is a strictly predetermined form of its execution. The content of the ritual itself is not so important - it is its form that matters. Many events in the life of primitive people were accompanied by rituals. We are aware of the existence of rituals of sending fellow tribesmen off to hunt, assuming the office of a leader, presenting gifts to leaders, etc. Somewhat later, rituals began to be distinguished in ritual actions. Rituals were rules of conduct that consisted of performing some symbolic actions. Unlike rituals, they pursued certain ideological (educational) goals and had a deeper impact on the human psyche.

The next social norms, which were an indicator of a new, higher stage of human development, were the customs. Customs governed almost all aspects of life in primitive society.

Another type of social norms that arose in the era of primitiveness were religious norms. Primitive man, realizing his weakness before the forces of nature, attributed divine power to the latter. Initially, the object of religious admiration was a real-life object - a fetish. Then a person began to worship some kind of animal or plant - a totem, seeing in the latter his ancestor and protector. Then totemism was replaced by animism (from the Latin “anima” - soul), that is, belief in spirits, soul, or the universal spirituality of nature. Many scientists believe that it was animism that became the basis for the emergence of modern religions: over time, people identified several special ones among supernatural beings - the gods. This is how the first polytheistic (pagan) religions appeared, and then monotheistic religions.

Parallel to the emergence of norms of customs and religion in primitive society, moral norms were also formed. It is impossible to determine the time of their occurrence. We can only say that morality appears together with human society and is one of the most important social regulators.

During the emergence of the state, the first norms of law appear.

Finally, corporate norms are the last to emerge.

All social norms have common features. They are rules of conduct of a general nature, that is, they are designed for repeated use, and operate continuously in time with respect to a personally indefinite circle of persons. In addition, social norms are characterized by such features as procedurality and sanction. The procedural nature of social norms means the existence of a detailed regulated order (procedure) for their implementation. The sanction reflects the fact that each of the types of social norms has a certain mechanism for the implementation of their prescriptions.

Social norms define the boundaries of permissible behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the inner convictions of people or by applying to them social rewards and social punishments in the form of so-called social sanctions.

Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of a society or social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. By their content, sanctions can be positive (encouraging) and negative (punishing). They also distinguish between formal (coming from official organizations) and informal (coming from unofficial organizations) sanctions. Social sanctions play a key role in the system of social control, rewarding members of society for fulfilling social norms or punishing deviations from the latter, that is, for deviance.

Deviant (deviant) is a behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms. Sometimes such deviations can be positive and lead to positive consequences. Thus, the famous sociologist E. Durkheim believed that deviation helps society to get a more complete picture of the diversity of social norms, leads to their improvement, promotes social change, revealing alternatives to existing norms. In most cases, however, deviant behavior is spoken of as a negative social phenomenon that harms society. Moreover, in a narrow sense, deviant behavior means such deviations that do not entail criminal punishment, are not crimes. The totality of the individual's criminal actions has a special name in sociology - delinquent (literally, criminal) behavior.

Based on the goals and focus of deviant behavior, destructive and asocial types are distinguished. The first type includes deviations that harm the person himself (alcoholism, suicide, drug addiction, etc.), the second - behavior that harms communities of people (violation of the rules of conduct in public places, violation of labor discipline, etc.).

Investigating the causes of deviant behavior, scientists - sociologists drew attention to the fact that both deviant and delinquent behavior are widespread in societies undergoing a transformation of the social system. Moreover, in the context of a general crisis of society, such behavior can acquire a total character.

The opposite of deviant behavior is conformist behavior (from Lat. Conformis - similar, similar). Conformist refers to social behavior that corresponds to the norms and values \u200b\u200baccepted in society. Ultimately, the main task of normative regulation and social control is the reproduction in society of precisely the conformist type of behavior.

.Psychological diagnosis: concept, types, functions.

Psychological diagnosis (diagnosis, from the Greek. Diagnosis - recognition) is the end result of a psychologist's activities aimed at describing and clarifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess their current state, predict further development and develop recommendations determined by the task of psychodiagnostic examination. The medical understanding of the diagnosis, firmly linking it with a disease, a deviation from the norm, was reflected in the definition of this concept in psychology. In such an understanding, a psychological diagnosis is always the identification of the hidden cause of the revealed distress. Such views (for example, in the works of S. Rosenzweig) lead to an inappropriate narrowing of the subject of psychological diagnosis, everything that is associated with the identification and consideration of individual psychological differences in the norm falls out of it. Psychological diagnosis is not limited to ascertaining, but necessarily includes foresight and the development of recommendations arising from the analysis of the entire set of data obtained during the survey in accordance with its objectives. The subject of psychological diagnosis is the establishment of individual psychological differences both in norm and in pathology. The most important element of psychological diagnosis is the need to find out in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what are their causes and consequences.

Types of diagnosis: - A diagnosis that reveals the presence / absence of certain properties and qualities of the personality (presence / absence of accentuations). - A diagnosis that allows you to find the place of the subject or group according to the severity of certain qualities. \u003d Making comparisons within the surveyed sample, ranking, introducing indicators of high, medium and low levels of development of the studied features by correlating with any criterion, standard (low, medium or high degree of risk readiness). Possible levels of diagnosis: 1) Symptomatic - a statement of individual characteristics or symptoms, on the basis of which practical conclusions are drawn 2) Etiological - takes into account not only the presence of features (symptoms), but also the causes of their occurrence. 3) Typological - determines the place and meaning of the data obtained in a holistic picture of a child's development.

1. Implementation of the diagnosis of activity, behavior, ie, description, analysis and characteristics of the characteristics of the behavior of the subject.

2. Implementation of the diagnosis of processes of regulation of activity or the study of mental processes through which the activity is carried out.

3. Implementation of the diagnosis of regulation mechanisms, mechanisms of mental processes, on which their course depends - diagnosis of systems of nervous connections.

4. Diagnostics of the genesis of regulation mechanisms or the answer to the question of how and in what conditions the psyche of a given individual was formed.

Screening is one of the most accurate and modern research. The doctor can prescribe screening of the heart, liver, stomach, examination of the mammary glands in women, screening to determine the pathologies of pregnancy. Each procedure must be justified with medical point vision.

Recently, all categories of the population have been screened. This procedure is called prophylactic medical examination, and all residents of the country participate in it. General screening allows early detection of many serious diseases. The standard procedure includes:

• Screening itself, that is, collecting data about the patient, his health status, chronic diseases, allergies and other features of the body, measuring height and weight. All data is entered into the form and medical record patient;
• Blood pressure measurement;
• Blood sampling from a vein and from a finger for testing for glucose, cholesterol, and biochemical analysis;
• Analysis of feces and urine;
• Heart electrocardiogram;
• Fluorography;
• Cervical smear and breast examination in women.

The list of analyzes may include other studies if there are deviations in the patient's state of health. The screening is summed up by a therapist who looks at the tests in a complex, and diagnoses the presence or absence of latent diseases and general condition organism. As a result preventive measures it is possible to detect diseases at the earliest stages, and monitor the health of not only each patient, but also the entire population.

Screening during pregnancy

If the clinical examination of the population is a new event, and not every person goes through it on time, then during pregnancy, doctors recommend passing all tests to all expectant mothers without exception. The examination includes a blood test and an ultrasound scan, and often this is enough to accurately determine the gestational age, weight and size of the child, its growth rate and developmental pathologies, if any. The most important is the screening of the first trimester, during which several serious diseasesincompatible with further development fetus, and carrying a threat to the life of the mother.

Screening for the 1st trimester includes:

• Ultrasound examination of the fetus and uterine cavity;
• Blood test of a woman for the level of human chorionic gonadotropin and pregnancy-associated protein-A.

The first stage is ultrasound diagnostics. She allows already on early dates trace the development of pregnancy, identify ectopic, frozen or multiple pregnancies, and identify abnormalities in the development of the fetus.

A study is being conducted at the 11-13th obstetric week of pregnancy, since at a later or early date the test will be less informative.

Ultrasound diagnostics of the uterine cavity of a pregnant woman allows you to determine:

• The exact gestational age is up to one day;
• Condition of the cervix and uterine cavity;
• The location of the fetus in the uterine cavity;
• The coccyx-parietal size of the fetus and its total length;
• Fetal head circumference and bipariental size, as well as symmetry and level of development of the cerebral hemispheres;
• The thickness of the baby's collar space and the size of the nasal bone.

All these data taken together make it possible to make an accurate diagnosis and predict the course of pregnancy. According to the size of the fetus at the first screening, several serious pathologies are determined, such as Down syndrome, micro-, macro- and anencephaly, Evards syndrome, Patau, and a number of other diseases that are not compatible with life in most cases.

Ultrasound diagnostics is performed both transvaginally and through the abdominal wall. Since the first test method gives a more accurate result, it is more preferable at the first screening in early pregnancy.

It is equally important during diagnosis to assess the blood flow and the work of the fetal heart. A rapid or slow heartbeat is most often also signs of pathology. It is important to notice poor blood flow in the vessels of the umbilical cord as early as possible, since with the mother's blood the baby receives oxygen and nutrients, and their lack has a detrimental effect on its growth and development.

The second stage of screening during pregnancy is a detailed biochemical blood test.

You can donate blood only after ultrasound diagnostics, since ultrasound allows you to accurately determine the age of the fetus.

This is important for correct diagnosis, since hormone levels change every day, and the wrong date can confuse the doctor. As a result, the tests will be recognized as not consistent with the norm, and the patient will be declared an erroneous diagnosis. During the test, the amount of chorionic gonadotropin and protein-A in the blood is assessed.

Chorionic gonadotropin is a substance that is produced by the fetal membrane.

By its presence in the patient's body, doctors determine the very presence of pregnancy already in its first weeks. The maximum content of chorionic gonadotropin reaches by 13 weeks, and then the level of the hormone gradually decreases. Depending on whether the level of hCG is increased or lowered, doctors can conclude about the pathologies of the fetus and the upcoming difficulties with bearing the fetus.

The second hormone, the content of which is assessed during the first screening, is protein-A. The development of the placenta and the body's immunity depend on it. In fact, this hormone rebuilds a woman's body, adapting it for bearing a fetus.

Based on the results of all three studies, the MoM index is displayed, which shows the risk of developing pathologies and deviations. When deriving the coefficient, the height, weight and age of the mother, her bad habits, and previous pregnancies. All the information collected during the screening gives an accurate picture, according to which the doctor can make an accurate diagnosis. This method has been used for over 30 years, and during this time has established itself as one of the most accurate research methods.

If the patient is at risk, then she is recommended to undergo screening during the second and third trimester of pregnancy.

But subsequent screenings are optional if the woman is healthy, younger than 35 years old, and previously had no problems with carrying a pregnancy and giving birth to children.

Breast examination

Breast screening, or mammography, is one of the most important for women.

It allows early diagnosis of benign or malignant tumors breast, identify lumps in the breast, dark spots on the images, and start treatment as soon as possible.

Breast examination is not necessarily a medical procedure. The easiest way to diagnose breast diseases is by self-palpation. It is recommended to be carried out one week after the end of menstruation, when the tissues of the gland are the most loose, and even small nodules can be felt. Doctors recommend doing this even for young girls, and from the age of twenty, an independent examination of both mammary glands becomes mandatory.

A clinical examination of the breast is carried out in medical institutions... Most often, it is performed by a gynecologist during routine examinations.

Based on the results of the examination, the doctor can either send the patient for a detailed examination of the mammary glands, or decide that she is healthy.

The third and most accurate screening is mammography. It is performed by a mammologist who makes an accurate diagnosis. In some ways, mammography is similar to fluorography, but not all of the X-ray machine gets into focus. rib cage and her internal cavity, but only the patient's chest.

For a mammogram, a woman should undress and snuggle tightly against the device. The exposed mammary glands are tightly pressed on both sides with special plates, and the laboratory assistant takes a picture. Later, the X-ray, which shows homogeneous tissues and areas of increased density, is transferred to a radiologist or mammologist, who gives the patient an accurate diagnosis.

Mammography should be performed regularly, starting from 35-40 years old - at least once a year.

For older women, after menopause, mammography is recommended once every two years.

This method of examining the mammary glands has many opponents among doctors and scientists. This is due to the fact that X-rays, even in small doses, can provoke the development of breast cancer. Second argument against examination procedure mammary gland - low reliability of screening. Studies have shown that in about 20% of cases mammography is false positive, which leads to nervous disorders in patients, and the need for painful biopsies. Therefore, despite the fact that most doctors recommend regularly undergoing mammography to prevent the risk of developing diseases, more and more patients refuse to undergo breast examinations unless absolutely necessary.

Heart screening test

If a person has a congenital or acquired heart defect, chronic diseases, excess weight, poor heredity, or routine screening revealed abnormalities in the work of the heart muscle, the doctor may recommend the patient to conduct additional research.

The first and one of the most accurate methods for diagnosing heart disease is electrocardiography. This study has been carried out for more than fifty years, and during this time it has managed to establish itself as one of the most accurate diagnostic methods.

The method is based on fixing the difference in electrical potentials in tense and relaxed muscles, in this case, the heart muscle.

Sensitive sensors, which are installed on the left side of the chest, wrist and abdominal wall of the patient, capture the electric field that occurs during the operation of the organ, and the second part of the device records changes in the electric fields.

This method can detect even the smallest deviations from the norm in the work of the heart.

The second, more accurate method of studying the work of the heart is ultrasound. For diagnostics, the patient takes a horizontal position, a gel is applied to his chest, designed to facilitate the sliding of the sensor on the skin and remove air, and a test is performed. On the monitor, the doctor sees the outline of an organ in statics and dynamics, can track the presence of pathological changes, thickening or thinning of muscles, an irregular rhythm, which indicates the presence of diseases.

The second screening method is a transesophageal examination of the heart.

This study is less pleasant for the patient, but due to the high accuracy and reliability of the result, screening is recommended by this method.

The need to insert the probe into the patient's esophagus is associated with the peculiarities of ultrasound studies. So, the bone for ultrasound is an insurmountable obstacle, and the muscles that create a dense frame on the chest and ribs partially absorb radiation. It must be remembered that ultrasound, used for medical purposes, has a small propagation radius, and therefore it is recommended to carry out a transesophageal examination of the heart even if the patient is severely obese.

During the introduction of the probe, the patient lies on his side on a couch, and the doctor applies to the throat and oral cavity anesthetic drug, inserts a probe and examines its internal organs.

When diagnosing the heart through the esophagus, the organ becomes visible in more detail, for example, you can clearly distinguish the aorta, large vessels, myocardial tissues and the heart muscles themselves. In the same way, patients are examined before cardiac surgery or, if necessary, repair of an implanted pacemaker.

Carrying out ultrasound examination the method through the esophagus is recommended for the diagnosis of diseases of all organs located in the chest cavity, behind the ribs.

These include the stomach, liver, lungs, spleen, and in some cases, even the kidneys are examined this way.

The abdominal organs during screening can be examined much easier - ultrasound easily penetrates the tissues of the anterior abdominal wall into the abdominal cavity.

Timely passage of screenings due to age and state of health will allow each person to maintain good health. It is especially important to detect and diagnose health problems while carrying a baby, since screening during pregnancy can help not only the mother, but also the fetus. Regular examinations in old age, after previous illnesses or operations are equally important. A simple screening procedure, which can be done in a district clinic, can be of great benefit to a person and preserve health.

When a woman is expecting a child, she has to take multiple tests and undergo scheduled examinations. Each expectant mother can be given different recommendations. The screening test is the same for everyone. It is about him that will be discussed in this article.

Screening test

This analysis is assigned to all expectant mothers, regardless of age and social status. The screening test is performed three times during the entire pregnancy. In this case, it is necessary to observe certain deadlines for the delivery of tests.

Medicine knows screening research methods, which are divided into two types. The first of these is the analysis It determines the possibility of various pathologies in the fetus. The second test is an ultrasound screening study. The evaluation should take into account the results of both methods.

What diseases does the analysis reveal?

Screening tests during pregnancy are not an accurate way of making a diagnosis. This analysis can only reveal the predisposition and establish the percentage of risk. To obtain a more detailed result, it is necessary to conduct a screening study of the fetus. It is prescribed only when the risks of possible pathology are very high. So, this analysis can reveal the possibility of the following diseases:

During the examination, the doctor measures the growth of the fetus, notes the location of the placenta. Also, the doctor must make sure that the child has all the limbs. One of the important points is the presence of a nasal bone and it is on these points that the doctor will subsequently rely on when decoding the result.

Second examination

Screening research during pregnancy in this case is also carried out in two ways. First, a woman needs to take a blood test from a vein and only then undergo an ultrasound scan. It should be noted that the deadlines for this diagnosis are somewhat different.

Blood test for second screening

In some regions of the country, this study is not carried out at all. The only exceptions are those women for whom the first analysis gave disappointing results. In this case, the most favorable time for donating blood is in the range from 16 to 18 weeks of fetal development.

The test is carried out in the same way as in the first case. The data is processed by the computer and produces the result.

Ultrasound examination

This examination is recommended for a period of 20 to 22 weeks. It should be noted that, unlike a blood test, this study is carried out in all medical institutions in the country. At this stage, the height, weight of the fetus is measured. The doctor also examines the organs: heart, brain, stomach of the future baby. The specialist counts the fingers and toes of the baby. It is also very important to note the condition of the placenta and cervix. In addition, Doppler sonography can be done. During this examination, the doctor monitors the blood flow and notes possible defects.

During the second ultrasound screening, it is necessary to examine the waters. Their number should be normal for a given period. Inside the membranes, there should be no suspended matter and impurities.

Third survey

This type of diagnosis is carried out after the most suitable period is 32-34 weeks. It is worth noting that at this stage the blood is no longer examined for defects, but only ultrasound diagnostics are performed.

During the manipulation, the doctor carefully examines the organs of the unborn baby and notes their features. The height and weight of the baby is also measured. An important point is normal physical activity during the study. The specialist notes the number amniotic fluid and its purity. The protocol must indicate the state, location and maturity of the placenta.

This ultrasound in most cases is the last. Only in some cases, a second diagnosis is prescribed before childbirth. That is why it is so important to note the position of the fetus (head or pelvic) and the absence of an umbilical cord entanglement.

Deviations from norms

If during the examination were identified various deviations and inaccuracies, then the doctor recommends showing genetics. At the reception, the specialist must take into account all the data (ultrasound, blood and pregnancy characteristics) when making a specific diagnosis.

In most cases possible risks are not a guarantee that the child will be born sick. Often such studies are flawed, but despite this, doctors may recommend additional studies.

A more detailed analysis is a screening study of the microflora of the amniotic fluid or blood from the umbilical cord. It should be noted that this analysis entails negative consequences. Quite often, after such a study, each woman has the right to refuse such a diagnosis, but in this case, all responsibility falls on her shoulders. If bad results are confirmed, doctors suggest an artificial termination of pregnancy and give the woman time to make a decision.

Conclusion

Screening tests during pregnancy are very important analysis... However, we must not forget that it is not always accurate.

After birth, the child will undergo neonatal screening, which will absolutely correctly show the presence or absence of any disease.