Who created medicine. History of the occurrence of medicine

MEDICINE, Science and practical activities to prevent and treat diseases. At the dawn of its history, medicine was mainly treated, and not a prevention of diseases; In modern medicine, preventive and therapeutic directions are closely connected, and the problem of public health is also paid great attention to much attention.

Bacteria belong to the earliest forms of life and, judging by the reports, caused animal diseases in the Paleozoic era. The famous Rousseo's theory about healthy and noble savage refers to the field of fiction; The person was susceptible to diseases from the very beginning of its existence: the femoral bone of Peteitront C O.Yava, Homo.(Pithecanthropus.) Erectus.who lived a million years ago, has pathological growths - signs of exhibition.

Modern knowledge of prehistoric medicine is based primarily on the study of fossil residues of a prehistoric person and its guns; Some information also gives the practice of a number of preserved primitive peoples. Fossil residues carry traces of such lesions of the skeleton as deformations of bones, fractures, osteomyelitis, spas, tuberculosis, arthritis, osteoma and rickets. There are no information relative to other diseases, but most likely almost all modern diseases existed in prehistoric times.

Primitive medicine was based on the assumption of the supernatural cause of the disease, namely the malicious effects of evil spirits or sorcerers. Therefore, treatment consisted of magic spells, conspiracies, chants and various complex rituals. Evil spirits needed to scare out noise, fool with masks or changing the name of the patient. Mainly used sympathetic magic (based on the faith in the fact that a person can supernaturally influence his name or representing its subject, for example the image). Magical medicine is still practiced on Polynesia Islands, in some regions of Central Africa and Australia.

Magical medicine spawned signs - apparently the first human profession. Started on the walls of the cave in the pyrenees of the Cromanone drawings, the age of which exceeds 20 thousand years, depict the healer-sorcerer in the skins and with a deer horns on the head.

People engaged in treatment formed a special social group that surrounded themselves mystical secret; Some of them were insightful observers. Many superstitions contain grain empirical truth. Incas, for example, knew the therapeutic properties of Mate (Paraguayan tea) and guarana, stimulating the effect of cocoa, the effect of plant drugs.

North America Indians, although they used witchcraft and spells, at the same time possess rather effective therapeutic methods. During the fever, a liquid diet, cleansing, diuretic, coorative agents and bloodletting were used. A vomit, laxative, wind turntable, enemas were used in stomach disorders; Lobelia, flax and banks - during respiratory diseases. Of the 144 medicinal substances used by the Indians, many are still used in pharmacology. Indians were especially skilled in surgery. They went out the dislocation, used tire dressings for fractures, maintained the purity of the wounds, put the seams, used the cavity, karticle. Aztecs also used tires and surgical instruments, skillfully made from stone.

The primitive person who used pointed stones as surgical instruments, showed an amazing surgical skill. There is evidence that in deep antiquity amputations have already been carried out. Outlines were such ritual operations as infibulation (exhausting brackets), castration and circumcision. But that is the most amazing, in prehistoric surgery, the trepanation of the skull was widespread.

Trepanation technique, frequent in the era of Neolith, is likely to go back to late Paleolithic. In the bone of the skull cut from one to five round holes. The increasing bone along the edges of the holes proves that patients quite often survived after this dangerous and complex operation. Skulls with traces of trepanation were found worldwide, with the exception of Australia, Malay Peninsula, Japan, China and south of Sahara. Trepanation is still practiced by some primitive peoples. Its purpose is not entirely clear; Perhaps this way produced evil spirits. On the islands of the Pacific Ocean, they were treated with epilepsy, headaches and breathtaking. On the O-ve New Britain, it was used as a means providing longevity.

Primitive peoples believed that mental illness arise due to obsession with spirits, not necessarily evil; Suffering hysteria or epilepsy often became priests or shamans.

With the fall of Rome, the arrival of Christianity and the emergence of Islam, new powerful influences completely transformed European civilization. These influences were reflected on the further development of medicine.

The period of the Renaissance, which began in the 14th century. And lasting almost 200 years, was one of the most revolutionary and fruitful in the history of mankind. The invention of typography and powder, the opening of America, the new cosmology of Copernicus, the Reformation, great geographical discoveries - all these new influences contributed to the liberation of science and medicine from the dogmatic shackles of medieval scholasticism. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 scattered Greek scientists with their priceless manuscripts throughout Europe. Now Aristotle and Hippocratic could be studied in the original, and not in translations to Latin with the Jewish translations of the Arab translations of Syrian translations from Greek.

However, it should not be thought that the old medical theories and treatment methods immediately gave way to scientific medicine. Dogmatic approaches were too deeply rooted; In the Medicine of the Renaissance, the original Greek texts simply replaced inaccurate and distorted translations. But in related disciplines, physiology and anatomy, which make up the basis of scientific medicine, there were truly grand changes.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the first modern anatom; He made an autopsy and opened the Gaimorov sinus, conducting a bunch in the heart, brain ventricle. Its masterfully performed anatomical drawings are very accurate; Unfortunately, they were not published until recently.

The anatomical works of another master, however, were published in 1543 together with wonderful drawings. Born in Brussels Andreas Kresali (1514-1564), Professor of Surgery and Anatomy in Padua, published a treatise On the structure of the human body(De Humani Corpore Fabrica, 1543), based on observations and openings. This epochal book has denied many erroneous representations of Galen and became the basis of modern anatomy.

The pulmonary blood circulation was discovered independently and almost simultaneously realdo Colombo (1510-1559) and Migesel Servetom (1511-1553). Gabriel Fallopy (1523-1562), the successor of Nezalia and Colombo in Padua, opened and described the total number of anatomical structures, in particular semicircular channels, wedge-shaped sinuses, triple, auditory and tongue nerves, facial nerve channel and the fallopian tubes, still often called phallopy. In Rome Bartolomeo Evstachius (approx. 1520-1574), formally another follower of Galen, made important anatomical discoveries, first describing the chest dump, kidneys, lads and auditory (Eustachiev) pipe.

Creativity of Paracelles (approx. 1493-1541), one of the outstanding personalities of the Renaissance, full of contradictions, characteristic of that time. In some aspects, it is extremely progressively: the scientist insisted on overcoming the abyss between medicine and surgery; required to keep wounds clean, not recognizing ideas about the need for their suppuration; simplified the form of recipes; In the denial of antiquity authorities, it was so far that he publicly burned Galen's books and Avicenna, and instead of Latin, he lectured in German. Paracels described the hospital gangrene, noted the relationship between congenital cretinism in the child and increasing thyroid gland (Goob) from parents, made valuable observations regarding syphilis. On the other hand, he was deeply immersed in alchemy and sympathetic magic.

If a plague raged in the Middle Ages, the revival was a victim of another terrible disease. The question of where and when syphilis appeared for the first time, remains unresolved, but the sudden spread of its acute and vehicles in Naples in 1495 is a historical fact. The French called Syphilis "Neapolitan Disease", and Spaniards "French". The name "Syphilis" appeared in the poem Girolamo Fracastoro (1483-1553), which can be considered the first epidemiologist. In his main work About infection... (De contagione...) The idea of \u200b\u200bthe specifics of the disease replaced the old humoral theory. He first defined the title, described various ways of infection, pointed to the infectious nature of tuberculosis. The microscope was still to be invented, and Fracastoro had already advanced the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of invisible "seeds of infection", which multiply and penetrate the body.

Surgery in the Renaissance Era was still in the hands of the Tsier and how the classes were less than medicine. While unknown anesthesia remained, and the suppuration was considered necessary for healing the wounds, there was no significant progress. However, some operations were performed at the time: Pierre Franco performed a supelver cystotomy (autopsy bladder), and Gildan facilities conducted a hip amputation. Gasparo Talyakoqsi, despite the counteraction of clerical circles, did plastic operations, restoring the shape of the nose in patients with syphilis.

With its numerous discoveries in the field of anatomy and embryology of the Aquapendente facilities (1537-1619), from 1562, he taught in Padua anatomy and surgery and summarized the surgical knowledge of his time in a two-volume work Opera Chirrgica.published already in 17 century. (in 1617).

Ambruz Pare (approx. 1510-1590) was distinguished by a simple and rational approach to surgery. He was a military surgeon, not scientist. At that time, boiling oil was used for causticing wounds. Once in a military campaign, when the oil reserve was spent, the pair applied a simple dressing, which gave excellent results. After that, he abandoned the barbaric practice of cavity. His faith at the healing power of nature is expressed in the famous statement: "I tied it, and God cured him." Pare also restored the ancient, but the forgotten method of imposing ligatures.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of rebirth in medicine was that it caused a crushing blow to an authoritarian principle in science and philosophy. The tough dogma lost to the observation and experiment, blind faith - impassment and logic.

The relationship of medicine and philosophy may seem contrived, however, as already noted, the flourishing of hippocratic medicine was closely connected with the development of Greek philosophy. Similarly, the methods and the main concepts of the largest philosophers of the 17th century. They had a significant impact on medicine of the time.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) attached special importance to inductive reasoning, which considered the basis of the scientific method. René Descartes (1596-1650), the father of modern philosophy, began his arguments from the principle of universal doubt. His mechanistic concept of the body belonged to the medical school of "yatrophysics", the opponents of which were equally dogmatic "yatrochimics". The first yatrophysicist of Santorio (1561-1636) invented a lot of useful tools, and among them a clinical thermometer.

The greatest physiological discovery of the century, who was destined to turn all medicine, was the discovery of blood circulation ( see also CIRCULATORY SYSTEM). Since Galen's authority has already been shaken, William Garveti (1578-1657), an English doctor who studied in Padua could freely deal with observations and draw conclusions that were published in his epocal book About Heart and Blood Movement(De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, 1628).

The opening of Groom was subjected to fierce criticism, especially from the Paris Medical Faculty, one of the most conservative schools of that time. There was prohibited to teach the teachings of Groom, and the deviations from the hippocratic and Galen were punished with an exception from the scientific community. Pumping quantity of the then French doctors was immortalized in the acute Satire of Moliere.

Garwee wisely ignored the crying speeches of opponents, waiting for the approval and confirmation of their theory. The road for the rapid advancement of physiology was open. Gaverway was confident in the existence of a link between the smallest arteries and veins, but not to detect it. This was done with the help of primitive lenses Marcello Malpigi from Bologna (1628-1694). Malpigi is not only the discoverer of capillary blood circulation, it is also considered one of the founders of histology and embryology. Among his anatomical discoveries - innervation of the language, skin layers, kidneyclosures, the lymph nodes, cerebral cerebral cells. He was the first to see the Red Blood Taurus (red blood cells), although did not understand their real appointment, accepting the fat balls.

Red blood cells were shortly described by another famous researcher - Antoni Van Levonguk microscope inventor (1632-1723). This Dutch merchant, constructed more than 200 microscopes, devoted his leisure to the study of a new, exciting microworld. The scale of the increase, which he was able to achieve, was small, at most 160 times, nevertheless he managed to detect and describe bacteria, although he did not know about their pathogeful properties. He also opened the simplest and spermatozoa, described the cross-and-coated allocated muscle fibers, made many other important observations. The assumption of communication between microorganisms and the disease was first nominated by Afanasiya Kirger (1602-1680), which noticed many "smallest worms" in the blood of plague patients. Perhaps it was not the actual pathogens of the plague ( Bacillus Pestis), But the assumption itself about such a role of microorganisms was very important, although it was ignored during the next two centuries.

The result of the active intellectual and scientific activity of the 17th century. The formation of several scientific societies in England, Italy, Germany and France, which supported research and carried out publishing results in individual publications and scientific journals. First Medical Journal New discoveries in all areas of medicine(Nouvelles Descouvertes Sur Toutes Les Parties De La Médecine) came out in France in 1679; in England medical Journal Entertaining medicine(Medicina Curiosa.) Appeared in 1684, but both have long extended.

The most outstanding medical society was the Royal Society in England; Four of its founders created modern breathing teachings. Robert Boyle (1627-1691), better known as the physicist and the founder of modern chemistry, showed that the air is necessary for burning and maintaining life; His assistant Robert Guk (1635-1703), a famous microscopist, conducted experiments on artificial respiration on dogs and proved that it was not the movement of the lungs in itself, namely air - the most important breathing condition; The third of their colleague, Richard Lower (1631-1691), solved the problem of the interaction of air and blood, showing that blood becomes bright red when exposed to air, and dark red, when artificial respiration is interrupted. The nature of the interaction clarified John Meyow (1643-1679), the fourth member of this Oxford group, proving that he was not air, but only a certain component was needed for burning and life. The scientist believed that this required component was a nitrogen-containing substance; In fact, he opened oxygen, which was named as only as a result of its secondary discovery, Joseph was attracted.

Anatomy did not lag behind physiology. Almost half of the anatomical names are associated with the names of researchers 17 V., Such as Bartoline, a wall, de Graph, Brunner, Virzung, Worton, Pakhioni. The powerful impetus to the development of microscopy and anatomy was given by the Great Medical School Leiden, which was 17 V. Center for medical science. The school was opened for people of all nationalities and religions, while in Italy Papal Edict did not allow noncatolics to universities; As it always happened in science and medicine, intolerance led to decay.

In Leiden, the largest medical shines of that time worked. Among them were Francis Silvius (1614-1672), who opened the head of the brain to Silviev, is a genuine founder of biochemical physiology and a wonderful clinician; It is believed that it was he who introduced clinical practice in Leiden learning. The famous German Burgave (1668-1738) also worked at the medical faculty in Leiden, but his scientific biography belongs to 18 V.

Clinical medicine also reached in 17 century. great success. But still reigned superstitions, hundreds burned witch and sorcerers; Inquisition flourished, and Galilei was forced to renounce his teachings on the movement of the Earth. The touch of the king was still considered a faithful tool from the gold, which was called "royal illness". Surgery still remained lower than the dignity of the doctor, but the recognition of diseases was significantly advanced. T.Willisia Differentiated sugar and unacceptable diabetes. Rahit and Beri-Bury were described, the possibility of infection with syphilis by incompetent way was proved. J. Floyer began to count the pulse using the clock. T. Tozidhem (1624-1689) described hysteria and chore, as well as the differences between acute rheumatism from gout and scarletna from measles.

Sidenchem is generally recognized as the most outstanding clinician of the 17th century, it is called "English Hippocratic". Indeed, his approach to medicine was truly hypocratic: Sidenchem did not trust purely theoretical knowledge and insisted on direct clinical observations. His treatment methods were still characterized - as a tribute to the time - excessive appointment with enema, laxatives, bloodsinks, but the approach was generally rational, and the medications are simple. Sidenhem recommended the use of Hin during malaria, iron with anemia, mercury during syphilis and prescribed large doses of opium. His persistent appeal to clinical experience was extremely important in the era, when there is still too much attention in medicine paid to pure theorization.

For medicine 18 V. Before the advantage of the time of generalization and mastering the preceding knowledge, not great discoveries. He is marked by improving medical education. New medical schools were founded: in Vienna, Edinburgh, Glasgow. The glorified doctors of the 18th century. Famous as teachers or as the authors of work on the systematization of already existing medical knowledge. Wonderful teachers in the field of clinical medicine were mentioned earlier by G. Burgawa from Leiden and U. Kullen from Glasgow (1710-1790). Many of their disciples occupied the honorable place in the history of medicine.

The most famous of the students of Burgawa, the Swiss A.Fon Galler (1708-1777) showed that the irritability of the muscles does not depend on the stimulation of nerves, but is a property inherent in the most muscle tissue, while sensitivity is a specific property of the nerves. Galler also developed a myogenic theory of heartbeat.

Padua was no longer a significant center of medical knowledge, but she brought up another great anatoma - Giovanni Battista Morganya (1682-1771), father of pathological anatomy. His famous book On the location and causes of diseases identified by anatomy(DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM PER ANATOMEN INDAGATIS, 1761) - masterpiece of observation and analysis. Founded by more than 700 examples, it combines anatomy, pathological anatomy and clinical medicine due to careful comparison of clinical symptoms with autopsy data. In addition, Morgania introduced into the theory of diseases the concept of pathological changes in organs and tissues.

Another Italian, Ladzaro Spallazeni (1729-1799), demonstrated the ability of the gastric juice to digest food, and also experimentally denied the most self-religion theory.

In clinical medicine of this period, progress is noticeable in such an important industry as obstetrics. Although nippers for the objects were invented in 16 V. Peter Chamberlain (1560-1631), more than a century, they remained a secret family of chamberlamen and were used only by them. Several types of forceps were invented in the 18th century, and they began to apply widely; There was also the number of obstetric men. U.Smelli (1697-1763), an outstanding English obstetrician, wrote Treatise about birth(Treatise On Midwifery., 1752), which accurately describes the process of childbirth and indicate rational procedures for their relief.

Despite the lack of anesthesia and antiseptics, 18 V surgery. advanced far ahead. In England, U. Schislden (1688-1752), author Osteography(Osteographia.), produced iridotomy - dissection of the iris. He was also an experienced coaching specialist (lithotomy). In France, J. PTI (1674-1750) invented the helical harness, the first began to carry out successful operations on a prepar procession temporal bone. P. Deso (1744-1795) improved the treatment of fractures. Operational treatment Passed aneurysm, developed by the most wonderful surgeon of that era John Hunter (1728-1793), was the classics of surgery. Being also a talented and diligent biologist, Hunter conducted a variety of research in the field of physiology and comparative anatomy. He was a real apostle of the experimental method.

This method itself, however, has not yet been so established to put barrier arbitrary theorization. Any theory, since she lacked a truly scientific justification, the other was opposed, as arbitrary and abstract. This was the dispute between the materialists and the Vitalists in the early 18th century. The problem of treatment was also solved purely theoretically. On the one hand, J. Brown (1735-1788) believed that the disease is in its essence - the result of insufficient stimulation, and the patient organism needs to stimulate the "limit" doses of drugs. The Opponent of the "Brown System" was S. Ganevan (1755-1843), the founder of homeopathy - a system that has adherents today. Homeopathy is based on the principle "similar one is treated like", i.e. If the medicine causes some symptoms in a healthy person, then very small doses are treated with similar symptoms. In addition to theoretical constructions, Ganeman made a significant contribution to the pharmacology, having studied the effect of many medicines. Moreover, its requirement to apply a medicine in small doses, with large intervals and only one medicine for one intake, made it possible to restore the body's own forces, while other doctors were extended patients with frequent bleeding, enema, laxative and excessive doses of drugs.

Pharmacology, which enriched already thickened (bark of a fry tree) and Opery, received further impetus to development with the discovery of therapeutic properties of aphidish (Digitalisa) W. Weathering (1741-1799). Diagnostics contributed to the widespread use of special single-minute hours to count the pulse. The medical thermometer was invented by Santorio, but was rarely used until J. Care (1756-1805) did not introduce him into practice. Austrian L.Auenbroupger (1722-1809), who wrote a book about percussion (tapping), made an extremely important contribution to the diagnosis. The opening of this method was not in a timely manner and became widely known only thanks to the personal doctor of Napoleon Z. Korvizar.

The 18th century is usually considered an age of educational, rationalism and a heyday of science. But this is the golden age of the experts, quarrels and superstitions, the abundance of secret miraculous drugs, pill and powders. Franz A. Mesmemer (1734-1815) demonstrated his "animal magnetism" (harbinger of hypnotism), causing an extreme passion for them in a secular society. Franology was considered to be serious science. Unprincipled charlatans made states on the so-called. "Healing Temples", "Heavenly Lodges", a variety of miraculous "electrical" devices.

Despite his delusions, the 18th century came close to one of the most important medical discoveries - vaccination. During the centers, there was a science of humanity; In contrast to other epidemic diseases, it did not disappear and remained as dangerous as before. Only in the 18th century She claimed more than 60 million lives.

Artificially weak infection with smallpox has already been used in the East, especially in China and Turkey. In China, it was carried out through inhalation. In Turkey, a small amount of liquid from the spray bubble was injected into the surface cut of the skin, which was usually led to a disease in a slight form and subsequent immunity. Such a type of artificial infection was introduced in England already in 1717, and this practice was distributed, but the results were not always reliable, sometimes the disease proceeded in severe form. Moreover, it did not allow to get rid of the disease itself.

Radical solution of the problem found a modest English rural doctor Eduard Jenner (1749-1823). He found that milkmaids are not infected with a natural osp, if he had already sacrificed the cow with a small-scale infection, transmitted during the milking cows. This disease caused only light rash and passed pretty quickly. On May 14, 1796, Jenner first conducted a vaccination of an eight-year-old boy, taking a liquid from the spray bubble of infected milking. Six weeks later, the boy was vaccinated with an abscess, but no symptoms of this terrible disease appeared. In 1798 Jenner published a book Research the causes and action of Variolae Vaccinae(Inquiry Into The Cause and Effects of The Variolae Vaccinae). Very quickly in most civilized countries, this terrible disaster has declined.

Only in recent years it was given a satisfactory definition of the concept of medicine: "Medicine is a system of scientific knowledge and practical measures, united by the aim of recognizing, treating and preventing diseases, preserving and strengthening the health and working capacity of people, continuing life 1. In this phrase for accuracy, it seems to us, follow the word "measures" to add the word "societies", since essentially medicine is one of the forms of society to combat diseases.

You can repeat that medical experience, medical science and practice (or art) have social origins; They cover not only biological knowledge, but also public problems. In human existence it is easy to see that biological patterns are inferior to social.

Discussion of this issue is not empty scholasticism. It can be argued that the medicine as a whole is not only science, but also practice (and the oldest), which existed long before the development of sciences, medicine as a theory is not only biological, but also social science; The objectives of medicine are practical. Rights B.D. Petrov (1954), arguing that medical practice and medical science, which arose as a result of critical critical generalization is inextricably linked.

G.V. Plekhanov emphasized that the influence of society on a person, his character and habits are infinitely stronger than the direct influence of nature. The fact that medicine and the incidence of people are social in nature seemingly no doubt. So, N.N. Syrotinin (1957) indicates a close relationship of human diseases with social conditions; A.I. Stops (1971) writes that human disease is a very complex socio-biological phenomenon; A.I. Germanov (1974) considers it a "socio-biological category."

In a word, the social aspect of human diseases is no doubt, although each pathological process is separately a biological phenomenon. Let us give another statement of S.S. Kalatova (1933): "Animals react to nature as purely biological creatures. The effect of nature on a person is mediated by social laws. " Nevertheless, the attempts of biologization of human disease still find defenders: for example, i.e. Vekua (1968) The difference between medicine from veterinary medicine sees in the "qualitative difference in the human body from the organism of animals."

The referenced references to many scientists are appropriate, because the patient's relationships and the doctor can sometimes create the illusion that hearing - as it were, a completely private thing; Such an invalid misconception could meet with us to the Great October Socialist Revolution and now exists in bourgeois states, while the knowledge and ability of the doctor - the whole of social origin and the human disease is usually due to the lifestyle and the influence of various factors of a particular social environment; The physical environment is largely also socially determined.

It is impossible not to recall the meaning of the socialist worldview for medical and understanding the disease and understanding of human disease. ON THE. Semashko (1928) wrote that the view of the disease, as the social phenomenon, is important not only as the correct theoretical installation, but also as a fruitful working doctrine. From this look, the theory and practice of prevention lead their scientific roots. This teaching makes it from a doctor not an artisan from the hammer and tubes, but a public worker: since the disease is a social phenomenon, then it is necessary to fight it not only therapeutic, but also socio-preventive measures. The social character of the disease obliges a doctor to be a community.

Social and hygienic research proves the social condition of the state of health of people. It is enough to remember the famous work of F. Engels "The position of the working class in England" (1845) 2. With the help of medical and biological analysis, the mechanism of action of environmental factors (climate, nutrition, etc.) is established on biological processes in the body. However, it is impossible to forget about the relationship and unity of the social and biological conditions of human life. The dwelling, food, the production environment is social factors by origin, but biological on the mechanism of impact on the anatomo-physiological characteristics of a person, i.e. we are talking about mediating by the body of social conditions.The higher the socio-economic level of modern society, the more effective the organization of the environment for human living conditions (even in space). Therefore, metaphysical and unscrewed both biologism and abstract sociologism in solving the problems of medicine. In the listed facts, it is possible to see crucial importance in the understanding of the theory of medicine and health care, the general worldview, the accounting of socio-economic grounds, a class approach.

Description of diseases in antique time and modern terminology.Practical experience doctorsaccumulated for several millennia. It can be recalled that the activities of ancient doctors have been accomplished on the great experience of predecessors. In 60 hippocratic books, in which, apparently, the works of his students were reflected, a significant number was found. names of internal diseases,which, as expected, were quite famous to the reader. Hippocrat did not describe their symptomatology, he had only the history of the disease of specific patients and many practical and theoretical comments. In particular, the following, conventionally speaking, nosological units: Peripnemmonia (pneumonia), pleurisy, purulent pleurisy (empya), asthma, exhaustion (physis), angina, phenomena, rhinestone, crofulosis, abscesses of various types (Apostles), Ryg, Cefalgia, Fenit, Lethargy (Fever with Sleepiness), Apoplex, Epilepsy, Tetanus, Causes, Mania, Melancholia, Ishias, Cardialiag (Heart or Cardia?), Jaundice, Dieseneria, Cholera, intestinal impact, belly , hemorrhoids, arthritis, gout, stones, stones, swelling (ascites, swelling), leukofemasia (anasarka), ulcers, crayfish, "big spleen", pallor, fatty disease, fever - continuous, daily, terciana, quarter, burning fever, Tiff, ephemeral fever.

Before the activities of the hypocratic and his school, doctors distinguished at least 50 manifestations of internal pathology. A rather long listing of various painful states and, accordingly, different designations is given in order to more precisely present the great progress of observations, albeit primitive, the doctors of ancient civilizations - more than 2500 years ago. It is helpful to realize and thereby be attentive to the grave works of our predecessors.

Position of medicine in society.Caring for people about the treatment of injuries and diseases has always existed and achieved some success in varying degrees in connection with the development of society and culture. IN ancient civilizations - For 2-3 thousand years BC - There were already some legislation governing medical practice, such as the Code of Hammurapi, etc.

Quite detailed information about ancient medicine was found in papyrus Ancient Egypt. Eberts and Edwin Smith's papyrus represented a summary of medical knowledge. Characteristic of the medicine of ancient Egypt was a narrow specialization, there were separate healers for the treatment of lesions of the eyes, teeth, head, stomach, as well as the treatment of invisible diseases (!) (Perhaps they relate to internal pathology?). This extreme specialization is considered one of the reasons who detained the progress of medicine in Egypt.

IN Ancient India Along with many empirical achievements of medicine, surgery achieved especially high level (removal of cataracts, removal of stones from the bladder, plastic facial, etc.); The position of the healers, apparently, was always honorary. In the ancient Babylon (according to Hammurapi Code) there was a high specialization, as well as public schools of healers. In ancient China, there was an extensive experience of healing; The Chinese were the first pharmacologists in the world, they paid great attention to the prevention of disease, believing that the real doctor is not the one who treats the sick, but the one who prevents the disease; Their healers distinguished about 200 species of the pulse of them 26 to determine the forecast.

Repeating devastating epidemics, such as plague, at times paralyzed the population with fear of "divine punishment". "In ancient times, medicine, apparently, was so high and the benefit of it is so obvious that medical art was part of a religious cult, was the belonging of the Divine" (Botkin S.P., ed. 1912). At the beginning of the European civilization, since the ancient period of ancient Greece, together with the exception of religious views on medical illness, received the highest rating. Evidence of this was the statement of Dramattry Eschila (525-456) in the "Prometheus" tragedy, in which the main feat of Prometheus was to learn people to provide medical care.

In parallel with Temple Medicine, there were medical schools of fairly high qualifications (Kosaka, Badovskaya schools), the assistance of which was particularly obvious in the treatment of injured or wounded people.

The position of medicine and therapeutic assistance, in particular in the era of Roman rule, was very low. Rome was flooded with a multitude of impocked healers, often fraudsters, and outstanding scientists of that time, such as Plinles senior, called the doctors of the Emirates of the Roman people. Should pay tribute to the state organization of Rome in attempts to improve hygienic conditions (Famous Rome Water Supplies, Maxim Cloaca, etc.).

The Middle Ages in Europe essentially did not give anything for the theory and practice of medicine. This should also be noted that the preaching of asceticism, contempt for the body, care mainly about the spirit could not contribute to the development medical receptions, With the exception of the opening of individual charity houses for patients and the publication of rare books on therapeutic plants, for example, the books of the XI century M. Floridus "On the properties of herbs" 3.

The development of medical knowledge, as well as all training, corresponded to the generally accepted scholastic method. Medical students were required to study logic for the first 3 years, then the books of canonized authors; Medical practice was not in the curriculum. This situation, for example, was even officially established in the XIII century and in the next time.

At the beginning of the Renaissance, there were few changes in studies in comparison with the Middle Ages, classes were almost exclusively book; Scholasticism, endless abstract verbal intricacies overwhelmed the heads of students.

It is necessary, however, it is necessary to note that along with a very increased interest in the manuscripts of antiquity began reinforced scientific research in general and the study of the structure of the human body in particular. The first researcher in the field of anatomy was Leonardo da Vinci (his surveys remained hidden several centuries). It can be noted the name of Francois Rabel - the Great Satirik and the doctor. He publicly opened the corpse and preached the need to study the anatomy of the dead for 150 years before the birth of the "father of pathological anatomy" of Morgania.

There is little known for the state organization of training and health care in this era, the transition from the gloomy Middle Ages to new medicine was slow.

The position of medical care in the XVII-XVIII centuries was rather pitiful, the poverty of knowledge was masked by dull reasoning, wigs and solemn gowns. This position of healing is truthfully depicted in the Moliere Comedy. The existing hospitals gave scant care to the patient.

Only during the Great French Revolution 1789 begins state regulation of medical educationand help; So, for example, from 1795 on the decret, mandatory student training in patients.

With the emergence and development of capitalist society medical education And the position of the practical doctor accepted certain forms. Learning medical art is paid, and in some states - even very expensive. The patient personally pays the doctor, i.e. Buys his skill and knowledge to restore his health. It should be noted that most doctors are guided humane beliefsBut in the conditions of bourgeois ideology and life they must sell their work to patients (the so-called fee). This practice sometimes acquires the disgusting features of "Cleft" in doctors due to the desire for an increasing profit.

The position of the healer in primitive communities, among the tribe, was honorary.

In half-day conditions, not so long ago, unsuccessful treatment led to death and physician. For example, in the reign of Tsar Ivan IV, two foreign physicians were executed due to the death of the Tsarevich treated with them, they were slaughtered "Aki Sheep".

Later, in the period of serfdom, the remnants of feudalism, the attitude towards the doctor was often negligible. At the end of the XIX century V. Snegirev wrote: "Who does not remember how doctors stood at the sickness, not daring to sit down ..." G.A. Zakhariane belongs to the honor of the struggle against the humiliation of doctors.

The position of "buying and selling" in medical practice was in pre-revolutionary Russia. The deviation of the doctor's activities from the rules of humanity (sometimes from elementary honesty) is noted in the writings of D.I. Pisareva, A.P. Chekhov et al. However, the doctors and the general public know the life and the perfect behavior of most doctors (for example, F.P. Gaaz, etc.), as well as actions of scientists who have expressed themselves dangerous experiments for the development of science, are familiar with the names of numerous doctors of Russia who worked conscientiously on the village. However, the practice of bourgeois relations everywhere prevailed, especially in cities.

The Great October Socialist Revolution has created new, the most humane rules of medical practice. All the relationship of the doctor and the patient, distorted by bourgeois ideology and practice, changed cool. Creating a public health system providing free medical care, installed new relationship of the doctor and the patient.

Caring for the health of the population, we are one of the most important tasks of the state, and the doctor became the performer of this serious task. In the USSR, doctors are not people of the so-called free profession, and public figures,working in certain social region. The relationship between the doctor and the patient has changed accordingly.

In conclusion, it is mentioned about the high value of the medical profession, it should be reminded novice doctors or students that this activity is difficult both by the possibilities of success and the situation in which the doctor will have to live. Another difficulties of our work eloquently wrote more hippocrates (ed. 1936): "There are some of the arts that are severe for them, but for those who enjoy beneficial and for ordinary people - the benefit of help, and for those involved in sorrow. From among these arts, there is both Ellina call medicine. After all, the doctor sees terrible, concerns what is disgusting, and from the misfortunes of others reaps for himself; The patients, thanks to art, are exempt from the greatest angry, diseases, suffering, from grief, from death, for against all this medicine is a healer. But the weaknesses of this art are difficult to learn, and strong - easily, and these weaknesses are known to be one doctors ... "

Almost everyone expressed by hippocrates is worthy of attention, careful thinking, although this speech seems to be more addressed to fellow citizens than to doctors. Nevertheless, the future doctor must weigh its capabilities - the natural movement of the help of suffering, the inevitable situation of heavy spectacles and experiences.

The difficulties of the medical profession vividly described A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Veresaev, M.A. Bulgakov; Their experiences are useful to think through every doctor - they complement the dry statement of textbooks. Acquaintance with the artistic descriptions of medical topics is absolutely necessary to increase the culture of the doctor; E.I. Liechtenstein (1978) gave a good summary of the statements of writers about this side of our life.

Fortunately, in the Soviet Union, the doctor is not a "lonely", dependent on the police or self-rigners of Russian, and is a worker, quite revered, participant in the state health care system.

1 BSE, 3rd ed. - T. 15. - 1974.- C. 562.

2 Engels F. The position of the working class in England // Marx K., Engels F. O.- 2-ed. - T. 2.- C. 231-517.

3 ODO made of me / ed. V.N. Ternovsky.- M.: Medicine, 1976.

Source of information: Aleksandrovsky Yu.A. Border psychiatry. M.: RLS-2006. & NBSP- 1280 C.
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The term "medicine" with Latin translates literally as "medical", "healing". This is a science of the human body in its healthy and pathological condition, as well as on the methods of diagnosis, treatment, warnings. various diseases. Thus, it cannot be argued that this is an exclusively scientific knowledge system, since practical activity is an important component.

The history of medicine began with the history of mankind - with the appearance of a disease, people always sought to find a way to eliminate it. However, it is now difficult to judge what skills owned by Lekari in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Epoch, as well as in later times - until writing appeared. Therefore, historical conclusions can only be done on the basis of the treatises found by archaeologists. In particular, high value is a set of Hammurapi laws, which refers to the rules of work of doctors, as well as the observation of Herodotus, describing medical activities in Babylonia.

Initially, hell were priests, so the healer was considered part of religion. Pathological processes, inexplicable knowledge of knowledge at that time, were associated with Kari Gods, so often the disease was treated only by the expulsion of demons and similar rituals. But already in ancient Greece, attempts were made to study the human body, for example, a great contribution to medical science was made by hippocrates, in addition, it was there that the first educational institutions for doctors were opened.

In the period of the Middle Ages, scientists continued an ancient tradition, but a significant contribution to the development of medicine was also made. So, the works of Avicenna, sample and other physicians became the foundation of modern science. Later, antiquity authorities were questioned, for example, Francis Bacon experiments. It has become a joke for the development of such discipline as anatomy, physiology. A more accurate study of the body and its work made it possible to better understand the causes and mechanisms of many diseases. Most knowledge was obtained by opening corpses and studying the characteristics of the structure of internal organs.

Fallen discoveries in the field of diagnosis, treatment, prevention of diseases were associated with general scientific and technical progress. Including in the XIX century, due to the invention, the microscope was the study of cells and their pathologies. A revolutionary role was played by the emergence of such science as genetics.

For today's day in the arsenal doctors not only thousand-year experience and the latest developments, but also modern equipment, effective drugswithout which it is impossible to submit to neither accurate diagnosis or effective therapy. However, despite such progress, many questions still remained open, scientists have yet to respond to them.

Medicine is one of the most ancient industries of science, which has its task recognition, treatment, prevention of the disease and the promotion of people's health. For centuries, the nature and level of development of medicine changed depending on the material conditions of society. The development of medicine is closely related to the development of natural sciences, philosophy and technology.

Modern medicine is a complex complex of scientific knowledge, including data on the structure of the human body (anatomy, histology), about its livelihoods in a healthy and sore state (physiology, pathological anatomy and pathological physiology), the doctrine of the recognition of the disease ( ), the doctrine of the treatment of various diseases (therapy, surgery and others), about medicines and their use (pharmacy and pharmacology), hygiene, which studies the impact of living conditions for human health and measures aimed at preventing the disease. The development of medicine led to the allocation of private medical disciplines - obstetrics and gynecology, dermatology and venereology, neurology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, pediatrics, psychiatry, epidemiology and other. Specialization made it possible to deepen and expand knowledge about the structure and functions of the human body and significantly improved the possibility of combating diseases.

Medicine in Socialist countries and in capitalist countries has fundamental differences. Medical science in capitalist countries is under the strong influence of various reactionary idealistic theories. Materially dependent on entrepreneurs, from the firms producing drugs, from private doctors, it is forced to fulfill their orders and requirements. The state is usually in a very small way helps medical science and practice. Large achievements of outstanding scientists of capitalist countries are often the subject of exploitation and profit. Advanced medical figures are fighting for making medicine to the service of the people.

Medicine in socialist countries is developing in the interests of the entire people, puts its task to protect the health of workers. Caring for the health of workers has become one of the most important functions of socialist states, and the state character of medical care has become one of its leading principles. In the USSR, one of the first decrees of the Soviet government canceled the provision of medical care. The legislative guarantees are provided with the opportunity to enjoy this right (the right to rest, material support in case of illness and disability, as well as in old age, the state protection of the interests of the mother and child and others (see ). The philosophical basis of medical science in the USSR is dialectical - materialistic understanding Nature, society and man. The teachings of I. P. Pavlova - naturally - the scientific basis of medicine in the USSR; It helps to understand the phenomena occurring in the body of a patient and a healthy person, and find out the connection of the body and the external environment. Medical science in the USSR is the subject of constant care of the state.

Medicine emerged in deep antiquity - in primitive peoples. The need to assist in damage, during childbirth allowed to accumulate knowledge about signs of illness, medical agents The forces of nature, as well as about medicines from the plant and animal world. For centuries, this initial experience was collected, enriched, and the most valuable part of it was subsequently used by scientific medicine. The helplessness of a primitive person before the forces of nature led to the fact that, along with rational data and receptions, amulets, conspiracies, spells and other techniques weighing are widespread. Even many centuries before our era in slave-owned class societies, the division of labor and the occurrence of crafts, and together with them - injury and illness, led to the emergence of professionals - healers. At the same time, representatives of various religions were largely taken to their hands in their own ways - there was a so-called temple, priestly medicine, which considered the disease as the punishment of God and the means of combating diseases considered prayers and sacrifices. However, along with temple medicine, medicine has continued to develop empirical. Help medical knowledge, professionals in Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, India and China opened new treatments for diseases. The appearance of writing made it possible to consolidate their experience in the first medical writings.

Ancient Chinese medicine is already on early stages His Developed has many knowledge of the health of people and their treatment. In ancient China, variolation was widely widespread - the vaccination of the contents of natural smallpox bubbles healthy people In order to protect them from the disease. The reasoned tips on the hygienic mode, which should be observed in order to be healthy. China used operations with anesthesia using hashish and opium. A variety of medicines from the plant and animal world were diverse (for example, ginseng and panty-horns of a young spotted deer - still used as medicines). Were developed peculiar chinese methods Treatment: ignition - Moxa - and acupuncture - acupuncture, as well as SU Jok Acupuncture, which have been widespread and applied today; The first major doctors appeared, for example, Bean Qio, who lived in the 6th century to our era and left the "treatise on diseases", which describes the diagnosis of the pulse. Later, the surgeon Hua Tu (2 century) and the author of 52-languid pharmacopoeia Li Shi-Zheng (16th century) received a wide fame. The influence of Chinese medicine (medicine) has spread to many countries of the East.

Indian medicine also emerged in ancient times and developed independently. Medical information was reflected in the arms of the laws of Manu (2 century BC) and in Ayurveda (Life Books), in which, as well as in Chinese medicine, was given great importance to hygiene prescriptions: the physical exercises were recommended, drug abuse and condemned and alcohol, recommended compliance with cleanliness, body care; The rules were justified - the use of meat was limited, plant food and milk were recommended. Many diseases were distinctly described - leprosy, hemorrhoids, mental illnesses, jaundice and others. Specialists appeared - doctors who treated certain diseases, for example. Surgical or bites of poisonous snakes. Surgery was considered in India the first and best of all medical sciences. In the ancient Indian, as in the ancient Chinese, medicine, much attention was paid to the studies of the pulse and urine. The outstanding doctor of sushu-root (one of the authors of Ayurveda) was trying to develop a general theory of medicine, where the experience gained medical techniques, Theoretical justification was supplied, it was stated that three starts were combined in the human body - air, mucus and bile. However, if the practice of Indian medicine gave satisfactory results, the theory of it was built on fantastic assumptions.

Ancient Greek doctors played a huge role in the development of medicine. The famous doctor, a philosopher and naturalist Hippocrat (460-377 BC) taught observation physicians and a careful study of the patient. The requirement to treat is not a disease, but the patient was its main principle; He considered the task of the doctor - to help the body's natural forces defeated the disease. In the numerous writings that have come down to us in the form of a "Hippocratian collection", the system of views that helped doctors for many centuries to recognize diseases and treat them. The materialistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe illness, which was indicated by Hippocrates, struggling with those who gave them a religious explanation, reflected the experience gained over the centuries; Particular attention was paid to the Wednesday in which a person lives, on the influence of climate, water, soil, lifestyle to the origin of the disease. Hippocrates and his follower of the Roman doctor Galen (131-210 of our era), the anatomical and physiological representations of which served as the basis of medicine up to the 16th century, had a huge impact on the development of medicine in Europe: for many centuries [before Avicenna appeared (Ibn Sina , about 980-1037)] These two prestige in the field of medicine were highest.

In the era of the Middle Ages, medicine in Western European countries was subordinate to the church and was influenced by scholasticism. Doctors founded the diagnosis and treatment not on the observation of patient and rational medical measures, but on distracted arguments; The church forbade the opening of the corpses, which slowed down the development of medicine. Since the doctors were prohibited from performing operations, always related to bleeding, surgery, in contrast to therapy, was in the hands of uneducated marigos, fireproofs and the like. Little medical faculties of universities were preparing an insignificant number of doctors; Only in a few of them - in Salerno and in Padua (Italy) - scientific work was carried out.

In this era, in all European countries, doctors were guided by the ideas of the famous book "Canon of medical science", created by an outstanding Central Asian Avician physician (IBN Sinai). A major philosopher, naturalist and doctor Avicenna systematically outlined medical knowledge of his era, enriching each section of medicine. Observation Avicenna allowed him to open up new ways to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The great importance of Ibn Sina attached the effect of the environment in which a person lives; Therefore, the hygiene section "Canon" was developed especially in detail. Medieval Eastern Medicine has advanced other wonderful doctors: Arian (864-U25) in its work on PSAP and Corey gave a description of these diseases, Ali Ibn Abbas (died in 994), Ibn al-Haysam (965-1038 GG) and others made a lot of valuable discoveries in medicine.

The revival era brought a new heyday of medicine in the 16th century Anate Flemandes A. Vesaly, who worked at the University of Paduan, corrected Galen's mistakes in the teaching on the structure of the human body and laid the foundations of a truly scientific anatomy. The development of natural science, in particular physics and chemistry, helped the emergence of new principles in medicine - were made by the first successful attempts to use the laws of physics and chemistry in the treatment of diseases (Iatropsis and Iatrochemistry, from Greek Iatros- doctor). Surgery developed practitioner practitioners, among which the French surgeon Ambruz Pare made a number of valuable methods, in particular to the processing of the Russian Academy of Sciences (replaced the moxibustion of the wounds with iron slush tissue with iron).

Development in the 17th and century of industry and an increase in the number of workers put forward the task of studying professional pathology: the Italian doctor B. Ramazcini in labor "On artisan diseases" described about 50 professional diseases. English doctor W. Gayway in 1628 published his work on blood circulation. This discovery was encouraged by official science hostile, and it took many years to ensure that the Garwa's doctrine becomes generally recognized. The clinical principle of the patient's observation, accompanied by an experienced testing, acquired an increasing distribution. Professor of Leiden University G. Burgave brought pleany of prominent doctors, standing in new positions: Materialist Materialist J. O. Lameter in France, J. Blindle in England, Van Switen in Austria, A. Galler in Germany and many others.

In this era, the struggle in medicine between materialistic and idealistic currents was continued: the Vitalym, according to which life phenomena allegedly manage special intangible, supernatural forces ("life force", "Entelokhiya", "Soul"), opposed to materialistic views, developed in the Netherlands G. Lerua (1598 - 1679), in France J. Lameter (1709-51, his book " Man machine") And P. Kabanis (1757 - 1808), the leader of the French revolution.

In the 19th century, capitalism won in Europe as a socio-economic formation brought significant, expanding research in the field of medicine. However, as in the previous formations, medicine was delivered to the service to dominant classes. The successes of natural science, primarily physics, chemistry and biology, made it possible to enrich medicine with new methods. The doctrine of the structure and activities of the human body was replenished with a new discipline - pathological anatomy, the founder of which was the Padanian doctor J. Morgali (1682 - 1771). Pathological anatomy It made it possible to compare the external manifestations of diseases with structural changes in organs and tissues at one or another disease. The openings of the dead made it possible not only to accumulate a huge material explaining the course of the disease, but also to control the actions of the doctor (the proactic - premises in which the corpses of the dead patients were revealed, became a mandatory component of the hospital); There was an opportunity to compare the data of the lifetime observation with the autopsy data. New approach In understanding the disease was progressive and gave a strong impetus for the development of medicine. However, during the development process, he led to the creation of theories that exaggerate the importance of local changes.

The doctrine of body tissues created by the French Anatoma and Medicine Surgeon Bisha (1771 - 1802) was a major stage in the study of the human body. Bisha listed 21 fabrics from which each has different functions and properties. The creation of teachings on the cellular structure of plants and animals by the German scientist T. Svannown was crucial influence on the development of medicine. The opening of energy transformation laws is the second great discovery that contributed to the development of biology and medicine. Based on this law, the development of natural science was going forward quickly, and medicine received a scientific principle into their own hands, explaining many phenomena of physiology. Biological chemistry and other disciplines caused to life with this law have made it possible to enrich medicine with new diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities.

The evolutionary doctrine of Ch. Darwin is the third great discovery that had great importance to medicine. Thanks to the discovery of Darwin, natural science not only became the system of materialistic knowledge of nature, but also made it possible to approach the solution of such problems of biology and medicine as heredity and its role in the development of human diseases, the correct understanding of the laws of origin and development of diseases. Scientists of Russia have played a big role in the development and propaganda of Darwinism. A fierce ideological struggle, which turned around Darwin's teachings, divided natural scientists into two groups - those who made the right materialist conclusions from the teachings, and those who tried to resist Darwinism, defend idealistic positions, as well as criticize Darwinism from the standpoint of religion.

Developed capitalism led to the growth of cities and crowded population, which strengthened the danger of epidemics. In the new conditions, medicine tried to solve the challenges nominated by life. The English doctor E. Jenner in 1798 successfully made the vaccination of the cow's smallpox to man, thus developing the method of combating infectious diseases by vaccinations. Cracking, with the support of advanced doctors, quickly spread throughout countries. Public health issues, its tasks and forms were developed by the German doctor I. P. Frank; In the overhaul of the "Full Medical Police System" (1779 - 1819), he proceeded from the thought that Healthcare was a matter of state. Another decision was offered a contemporary franc German scientist X. Gufelland, who put personal hygiene at the head of the corner.

The successes of medicine are closely intertwined with the successes of natural sciences. In the first half of the 19th century, physiology joined the path of a broad experiment. English surgeon and physiologist C. Bell experimentally studied the distribution of sensitive and motor fibers In the front and rear roots of the cerebrospinal nerves. The establishment of this fact and the development of its Franz. Physiologist F. Majandi contributed to the identification of the activity of the nervous system in the body, the emergence of experimental physiology as the basis of medicine. The numerous discoveries of the German scientist I. Muller, who studied the structure and functions of the senses, the structure of the glands, the composition of the blood and lymph was even more important. One of the first Muller began to develop physiological chemistry. The experimental method was successfully used by many students of I. Muller - I. Liborkun, K. Ludwig, E. Gekkel, R. Virchov, Gelmgolts. Widely using the physiological experiment, the French scientist K. Bernard in the mid-19th century raised its goal to combine physiology, pathology and therapy. The famous experience of K. Bernard - Damage to the bottom of the brain ventricular at the experimental animal, causing a significant increase in blood sugar, was one of the links in a series of his experiments on the study of the functions of the liver and its role in the process of learning food. Physiology K. Bernard put on the service of the clinic. His successes in the study of the processes of digestion, blood circulation and diseases of these systems allowed him to nominate the thesis: "An experimental doctor - there is a doctor's doctor." However, the successes of the physiologists of Majandi, Muller, Bernard in concrete areas But they got rid of them from understanding the processes of life from the position of idealistic philosophy. Only with the advent of the works of Russian researchers, first of all S. P. Botkin, I. Medicine Sechenov, I. P. Pavlova, were first correctly, materialistically, the laws of activity of the central nervous system and the whole organism as a whole were disclosed. Materialistic, scientific interpretation of mental phenomena - thinking and consciousness - was given in the work of Sechenov "Brain Reflexes" (1863). Russian scientists rebuilt the physiology and had a profound impact on the development of medicine.

The development of pathology in the middle of the 19th century led to the struggle of its two areas - humoral (from the Latin Humor - liquid) and the so-called cell. The representative of the first - Viennese pathologist K. The Rokitansky cause of painful phenomena considered changes in the composition of the juices of the human body. He objected the German pathologist R. Virhov; In his book, "Cellular Pathology" (1858), he argued that the source of the disease is the abnormal activity of cells ("the whole pathology is the pathology of the cell"). The merit of Virchova was an application of a cell doctrine to study diseases. They were clarified changes in the tissues and cells of organs caused by the disease, which enriched clinical medicine and facilitated the diagnosis. However, Virchov's theory, its cell pathology overestimated the role of cells, reducing the essence of the disease only to the damage to certain cells and denying the unity of the body and the value of the central nervous system. Russian scientists Medicine Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. I. Pirogov, S. P. Botkin and others, sharply criticized the cell pathology of Virhov, opposing it with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of the body and the environment and the leading role in it (both in healthy and the lead Patient condition) central nervous system.

Thanks to the successes of natural science, clinical medicine has been enriched with new methods of diagnosis and treatment. The possibilities of treatment expanded, in particular due to a significant improvement in the methods of clinical research. Doctors began to apply percussion (skipping), auscultation (listening), measuring body temperature. The diagnostic technique in the 19th century was replenished with devices based on the study of physical and chemical phenomena: blood pressure measurement, bronchoscopy, electrocardiography, microscopic study of blood formation elements. A large step forward was the discovery in 1894 by the German scientist V. K. X-ray X-ray and the use of them for diagnosis and therapy (see ). The development of chemistry, chemical industries, and then the pharmaceutical industry provided a large number of new effective medicines at the disposal of clinicians.

Surgery in the 19th century survived a new stage of development, as the surgeons realized the need for a deeper study of the anatomy for the success of operational interventions. Big role N. I. Pirogov played this, which developed a new discipline - topographic anatomy - and published anatomy-surgical atlas. The surgical method has become widely applied in many clinical specialties - in the treatment of female diseases, eye and others.

The most important stage in medicine in the 2nd half of the 19th century, related to development It was the establishment of the French scientist L. Pasteur the role of microbes in the occurrence of infectious diseases. The pathogens of the Siberian ulcers, return typhoid, amoebic dysentery, abdominal typhoid, tuberculosis, plague, cholera and others were discovered. Methods for treating and preventing infectious diseases were developed: in 1881, vaccinations against Siberian ulcers were developed, in 1885 - against rabies (Pasteur, France), in 1890, against diphtheria [ә. Bering (Germany), S. Kitazato (Japan), E. Ru (France)] and others. The doctrine of immunity and the new branch of Science - Immunology (one of the founders of which I. I. Mechnikov was armed with medicine with new means of combating infectious diseases - vaccines and serums (so-called immunotherapy). Further development of microbiology in the 20th century led to the allocation into an independent discipline of the teachings on viruses - virology.

Based on the discoveries of microbiology, there made great successes and hygiene. Growth in the 19th century of large cities, large industrial centers, their unsanitary state was threatened by the life and health of the population; This stimulated the development of broad scientific research in the field of hygiene and sanitation. The German scientist Medicine Pettencofer applied experimental research methods, giving hygiene scientific base. Study of the effect of air, water and soil on human body allowed to put on the scientific soil the device of water pipes, sewage and dwelling. Pettenco's students - Russian scientists F. F. Erisman, A. P. Dobroslavin and others - developed the direction created by Pettenkofer, founding the Russian School of Hygienists, for which the study of social factors - systematic accounting of the main indicators of statistics and the dynamics of public health (fertility, mortality, morbidity, physical development and the like).

Wide use in medicine both for recognition and for the treatment of diseases, in addition to X-rays, also radioactive substances (see,). In the 20th century, the doctrine of vitamins was created and their role was established in the prevention of diseases and their treatment [work of the Polish scientist K. Futus (1912), confirming the conclusions and experiments of Russian scientists N. I. Lunin (1880) and V. in . Pashutin (1902)]. The development of organic chemistry since the beginning of the 2nd half of the 19th century led to the emergence of chemistry of synthetic drugs, and the synthesis in 1909 by the German scientist P. Erlich powerful anti-silicite tool - Salvarsan - laid the foundation of modern chemotherapy. The largest achievement in the field of chemotherapy was discovery and use with therapeutic purposes of sulfonamide drugs (German scientist G. Domagk, 1935), and then - antibiotics.

In the USSR, medicine received tremendous development opportunities provided to it by the conditions of a new socialist public and state system. In the USSR, medical science develops in accordance with the requests for the protection and promotion of public health, to fulfill the implementation of a wide network of research institutions.

Since the philosophical basis of medicine in the USSR is dialectical materialism, Soviet doctors deeper and more correctly approach to solving such nodal issues of medicine as a question about the relationship of social and biological, on the organization of the body with the environment, about the leading role of the nervous system.

The preventive orientation of medicine in the USSR is the most characteristic of its trait. The physiological teaching of I. P. Pavlova, synthesizing the best progressive achievements of world scientific physiology, is creatively used in all areas of medicine. Close contact with practice allows not only to quickly respond to life requests, but also to use data from a huge network of medical institutions for scientific research.

One of the most important principlesThe underlying of Soviet medical science is the principle of development, evolution. The evolutionary direction was reflected especially in major studies A. A. Zavarzin and N. G. Khlopin. For morphology, it is also characteristic of the evolutionary direction, also the principle of communication, unity of the form (structure) and functions. This direction is the most vivid expression in the works of V.N. Tonkov and V. P. Vorobyeva, B. I. Lavrentyeva. In the field of topography, Anatomy V. N. Shevkunenko and his students developed issues of age "typical" anatomy, which is of great importance for practical surgery. Pathological anatomy in the USSR represented by its representatives A. I. Abrikosov, I. V. Davydovsky and others. Consistently develops a clinical and anatomical direction.

Pathophysiology in the USSR is directly related to the clinic. Student I. P. Pavlova A. D. Speransky widely developed the idea of \u200b\u200bPavlov about the nervous trophic and put forward the leading role of the nervous factor in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. They have the importance of the works of N. N. Anichkova and his staff on diseases of the arteries, in particular atherosclerosis, in infectious pathology. Numerous works of A. A. Bogomolets and his disciples are devoted to the problems of longevity. The works of I. P. Pavlov in the development of domestic pharmacology are played a major role. In the studies of N. P. Kravkov, who developed the idea of \u200b\u200bPavlov, it should be noted experiments on isolated organs, work on the study of internal secretion. The successes of chemotherapy in the USSR and the development of the chemical pharmaceutical industry, the synthesis of new Soviet preparations are connected with pharmacological studies.

Socio-preventic Election of Soviet health and medical science is particularly complete expression finds in hygienic disciplines (general, communal, labor hygiene, nutrition hygiene, school). Among the hygienic disciplines, social hygiene was taken by a special place, in the development of which the preiser theorists and the organizers of the Soviet health care N. A. Semashko, 3. P. Solovyov. Great development received: communal hygiene due to the emergence and rapid growth of new cities, the country's reconstruction and giant housing construction; labor hygiene, in front of which there were new tasks caused by the mechanization of agricultural production, the introduction of new production processes and the creation of new industries; Power hygiene due to the wide development of catering.

A prominent place in Soviet medicine occupied epidemiology, microbiology and virology. New highly efficient: antimalarial, anti-binding, anti-cancer, anti-influenza and other are designed and put into practice. Large scientific advances were achieved by Soviet microbiologists and epidemiologists in solving the problem of viral infections - Spring-summer encephalitis, Japanese (comlarin) encephalitis in the Far East, RicketTSiosis, gemorrhagic fever both, in the fight against malaria (works of P. G. Sergiyev, V. N. Beklemishev and others). E. N. Pavlovsky and his students created a new theory about the natural foci of transmissible diseases, which showed that the source of infection for various diseases is not always a sick person, but in some cases and various animals in natural conditions of nature.

From the clinical disciplines, the teachings of I. P. Pavlova first provided influenced the development of the clinic of internal diseases: the work of V. P. Exodinova, N. D. Strazesko, A. I. Yarotsky, N. I. Leporsky, belonging to diseases of the abdominal bodies cavities, studies of F. Lang and A. L. Myasnikova, V. F. Zelenina and other hypertension, diseases, heart disease and vessels, E. M. Taarev - for kidney disease. Soviet surgery escaped a narrow practical slope (information of surgery for operational techniques) and develops as an advanced scientific and practical, clinical discipline with a prophylactic direction. The issues of abdominal surgery are widely represented in the works of I. I. Grekova, S. S. Yudina and others; Brilliant work in the field of heart surgery belongs to A. N. Bakulevu, A. A. Vishnevsky, I. I. Ghanelidze, P. A. Kupriyanov, E. N. Meshalkina, B. V. Petrovsky; In the development of neurosurgery, N. N. Burdenko, A. L. Polenov and others were made a lot; In the field of surgery, the treatment of tumors is a large place occupy the work of N. N. Petrova, P. A. Herzen, A. G. Savina, A. I. Savitsky, N. N. Blokhin et al. No less successfully develop other industries of clinical Medicine.

Medicine research is conducted on government plans. The highest scientific and medical body of the country that leads guidance in this area is the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, founded in 1944.

The successes of medical science in the USSR contributed to the outstanding and fundamental importance of achievements - a sharp decline in general and child mortality, improving life expectancy, reduction of infectious diseases, liquidation in the USSR such diseases as plague, cholera, natural suite, returning title. Close to liquidation of malaria, syphilis and many other diseases.

Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated January 14, 1960 "On measures to further improve medical care and the health of the public health of the USSR" contributed to a significant increase in the material opportunities of the development of medicine in the USSR and put the task before it, the permission of which will bring to the elimination of the most severe Diseases (cancer and other) and to a new step to raise the struggle for human health and his longevity.

The art of healing has passed a huge way to achieve a high level of development. People always hurt, and healers, the characteristics, the healers began their existence almost with the origin of the human race.

Prehistoric medicine

In prehistoric times there were many different diseases. Primitive people did not care about their housing and body hygiene, did not handle food and did not seek to isolate dead tribesmen. Such a lifestyle is the best environment for the growth and development of various infections and diseases and ancient medicine could not cope with them. The absence of elementary hygiene gave rise to skin diseases. Bad food treatment, its primitiveness and rigidity led to abrasion, damage to teeth and jaws, diseases digestive system. During battles and hunting, primitive people received hazardous injuries, the lack of treatment of which often led to death.

A huge number of diseases and injuries provoked the origin of primitive medicine. Ancient people It was believed that any disease was caused by the entry of someone else's soul into a person's body, and for healing it is necessary to expel this soul. Primitive doctor, and part-time and priest, engaged in exile with the help of spells and various rituals.

The primitive healing was not limited to this. People with time learned to notice and use medicinal properties Plants and other fruits of nature. The clay served as a kind of "gypsum" of that time - healers fixed it fractures. Primitive operations were carried out, for example, skulls were found with traces of successful trepanation.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt can be considered a cradle of medicine as science. Knowledge and manuscripts of the ancient Egyptian doctors served as the basis for many more modern medical methods and exercises. It is considered the most ancient of the documented medicine systems. The feature of the ancient Egyptian medicine is that considerable part of the discoveries attributed to the gods. Such as hesida, Oziris, Mountains, Bastet. The best part-time healers were priests. All their discoveries and observations they attributed to the gods. Unlike prehistoric times, the Egyptians betrayed great importance to hygiene. They clearly prescribed what should be taken in food, when to sleep when to make preventive procedures (vomit and laxatives for cleansing the body). They were the first to consider that body health must be supported by special games and physical exertion. The Egyptians first learned about the existence of a pulse. They did not have an accurate idea of \u200b\u200bvessels, various nerves, tendons and what they differ. All blood system They represented as the River Neil.

Priests showed themselves as surgeons, they could carry out limb amputation, surgically Delete skin thighs, Conduct - both male and female. Many methods were ineffective and useless, but they became the first steps for further development. For example, as medicines based on mold and fermentation processes, ancient medicine in Egypt was quite developed, as for its time.

Ancient indium

In Indian beliefs, the gods who invented medicine were Shiva and Dhanvantari. Initially, as in Egypt, he could only be engaged in marriage (priests). Next, the healer went into a separate Casta. Which, unlike Brahminov, received a reward for their works. In addition to the award, the person who became a doctor was supposed to be purely dressed, follow himself, behave gently, culturally, to come at the first request of the patient, to treat Priests for free.

In India, they were very careful about their hygiene: in addition to simple washes, the Indians cleaned their teeth. There was a separate list of products that help digestion. Separately, they endured surgery from medicine, calling her "Shawliya". Surgeons could both extract cataract and remove stones. Works on the restoration of ears and nose were very popular.

It is the ancient medicine of India described beneficial features more 760 Plants and studied the effect of metals on the body.

They paid special attention to obstetrics. The doctor had to have four experienced women to help. Medicine in India was more developed than in Egypt or Greece.

Ancient Asia

The basis of Asian medicine served Chinese medicine. They strictly followed the observance of hygiene. As a basis chinese medicine They took nine laws, conformity categories.

Based on nine laws, they chose treatment methods. But in addition, in China, surgical operations were carried out, anesthesia and aseptics were used. The first vaccinations from smallpox were made in China for a thousand years BC.

It is impossible to separate Japanese medicine separately, it was built on traditional medicine of China. At the same time, the ancient medicine of Tibet was built on the medical traditions of India.

Ancient Greece and Rome

In Medicine Greece, the practice of observation of the patient was first adopted. Studying ancient medicine of Greece, heavily noticing the effect on her ancient Egyptian medicine. Most of the medicines used have long been described in the papyrus of Egyptian healers. In ancient Greece, two schools were allocated - in Kirin and Rhodes. The first school did the emphasis on the fact that the disease is general pathology. Accordingly, it was treated, making the emphasis on the patient's characteristics, for example, on the physique. School from Rhodes worked immediately with the hearth disease. On the other hand, medicine was engaged in philosophers, they distributed their knowledge among the public. They studied medicine from a scientific point of view. Separately from all medicine, highlighted gymnastics, as a way to treat dislocations and develop their body.

The deeper the knowledge in ancient medicine of Egyptians penetrated, the more experienced doctors appeared with new methods. One of these fathers of medicine was Hippocrates. His more deeply developed surgical practices. He could spend the trepanitation of the skull, the removal of the pus, puncture chest, abdominal cavity. The only problem was operations with a large number of blood - without knowing how to work with vessels, Hippocrates refused to have such patients.

All medicine ancient Rome built on the achievements previously borrowed from Greek doctors. The situation is repeated - as Japanese medicine was built on the basis of Chinese. Initially, all Medicine Rome was built on pleasant and pleasure methods: walks, baths. Further, based on the teachings of the hippocratic, a methodological school, the school of pneumatics tried to improve them, but already in scientific terms. The best physician Rome was Galen. He studied in detail anatomy, wrote about medicine more 500 Treats. More carefully studied the work of the muscles.